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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

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THE  i  HARNESSING  OF 

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NIAGARA 


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THE   GASSIER   MAGAZINE   CO. 

NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 

1895 


COPYRIGHTED,  1895, 

BY 
THE  GASSIER  MAGAZINE  CO. 

All  Rights  Reserved. 


PREFACE. 


ECOGNIZING  the  great  interest  which  the  world  is  showing  in  the 
A  \  work  at  Niagara  Falls,  by  which  it  is  proposed  eventually  to  obtain 
the  enormous  quantity  of  450,000  horse-power,  to  be  distributed  elec- 
trically hundreds  of  miles  away',  thV  publishers  of  GASSIER' s  MAGAZINK 
arranged  with  the  eminent  engineers  and  electricians  in  charge  of  the 
work,  to  supply  them  with  the  first  complete  and  authentic  account  of  this, 
the  greatest  engineering  feat  of  the  century,  from  its  inception  to  the 
application  of  the  current  for  commercial  purposes.  The  result  was  a 
magazine  of  unusual  size  and  without  doubt  the  most  important  engineer- 
ing publication  ever  issued,  clearly  destined  to  be  an  enduring  work  of 
reference  on  the  subject.  A  more  substantial  binding  than  the  conventional 
paper  cover  therefore  suggested  itself  for  the  number,  for  library  use,  and 
led  to  the  issuing  of  the  magazine  in  the  present  shape,  in  which  it  will 
commend  itself,  even  more  than  before,  to  every  one  interested  in  the 
remarkable  enterprise  at  Niagara  Falls. 

THE  GASSIER  MAGAZINE  Co. 
NEW  YORK  AND  CONDON. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Portraits  of  Officers  and  Directors  of  the  Cataract  Construction  Co  ...  162-172 

The  Use  of  the  Niagara  Water  Power.  Francis  Lynde  Stetson 173 

Mechanical  Energy  and  Industrial  Progress.  Prof.  W.  Cawthorne 

Unwin,  F.  R.  S 195 

Some  Details  of  the  Niagara  Tunnel.  Albert  H.  Porter 203 

The  Construction  of  the  Niagara  Tunnel,  Wheel-Pit  and  Canal.  George 

B.  Burbank 213 

Niagara  Mill  Sites,  Water  Connections  and  Turbines.  Clemens  Herschel.  227 

Electric  Power  Generation  at  Niagara.  Lewis  Buckley  Stillweltf 253 

The  Industrial  Village  of  Echota  at  Niagara.  John  Bogart .,*  . .  307 

Notable  European  Water  Power  Installations.  Col.  Th.  Turrettini 322 

Distribution  of  the  Electric  Energy  from  Niagara  Falls.  S.  Dana  Greene.  333 

The  Niagara  Region  in  History.  Peter  A.  Porter , 365 


INDEX  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PORTRAITS —  PAGE 

Edward  D.  Adams 162 

Chas.  F.  Clark 163 

Johu  Jacob  Astor 164 

George  S.  Bowdoin 165 

Chas.  Lanier 166 

Jos.  Larocque. J6? 

D.O.  Mills 168 

Wra.  B.  Rankine -  169 

F.  W.  Whitridge.... - i?o 

Edw.  A.  Wickes - 171 

F.  L   Stetson 172 

The  International  Niagara  Falls  Commission .. l84 

W.  C.  Unwin 194 

Albert  H.  Porter - -  202 

Geo.  B.  Burbank 212 

Clemens  Herschel 226 

1,.  B.  Stillwell 252 

Dr.  Coleman  Sellers 299 

De  Courcy  May r 301 

John  Bogart 306 

Theo.  Turrettini .... 323 

S.  Dana  Greene .... 332 

Peter  A.  Porter 364 

Father  Hennepin 367 

Rene  Robert  Cavelier  Sieur  De  La  Salle - 368 

The  Horseshoe  Falls - i?3 

The  Falls  from  Prospect  Point --- - *74 

A  View  of  the  Old  Milling  District 175 

From  Goat  Island,  Looking  Towards  Luna  Island. 176 

Peter  Emslie's  Map,  Showing  the  Early  Canal  and  Reservoir  Proposed  in  1846 177 

The  Niagara  Falls  Railway  Suspension  Bridge 178 

Depths  and  Bevels  of  the  Great  Lakes. i7Q 

Near  Prospect  Point  at  Night 181 

The  Whirlpool  Rapids  Below  the  Falls 182 

Map  of  Niagara  Falls  and  Vicinity,  Showing  the  Location  of  the  Great  Tunnel 183 

Buffalo  and  the  Territory  Which  Pays  Her  Tribute 186 

Niagara  Falls  in  Winter 187 

Ice  Bridge  under  the  Falls 189 

The  Horseshoe  Falls  from  Goat  Island 190 

Another  View  Near  Prospect  Point 191 

The  Horseshoe  Falls  at  Niagara 196 

The  Falls  Near  Prospect  Point 197 

Beginning  the  Power  Canal  at  Niagara 198 

In  the  Niagara  Wheel-Pit  During  Construction ..'..--  199 


INDEX  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Opening  Ceremonies  at  the  Beginning  of  the  First  Shaft  for  the  Niagara  Tunnel - 203  . 

powering  a  Girder  into  the  Wheel-Pit - 204 

Cross  Section  of  Tunnel,  Showing  Position  of  Drill  Holes 205 

Cross  Section  of  Tunnel,  Showing  Method  of  lining ---  205 

Map  and  Profile,  Showing  Method  of  Establishing  Centre  Line  and  Grade  of  Tunnel 206 

Longitudinal  Section  Showing  Method  Employed  in  Sinking  Shaft,  and  Timbering,  Brick-Lining,  and 

Driving  the  Main  Tunnel - - 207 

Section  of  Power  House,  Wheel- Pit  and  Tunnel,  Showing  one  of  the  Turbines  and  Generators  in  Place..  208 

Plan  Showing  Arrangement  of  Trough  and  Canvas 209 

Plan  Adopted  for  Handling  Water  at  Shaft  No  2 - 209 

The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company's  Station 213 

The  Tunnel  During  Construction .' 214 

One  of  the  Canal  Inlets  at  an  Early  Stage 215 

Lowering  a  Penstock  into  the  Wheel-Pit 216 

The  Mouth  of  the  Tunnel  During  Construction 217 

A  Progress  View  of  the  Canal 218 

Another  Early  View  of  Tunnel's  Mouth aiq 

A  View  of  the  Wheel-Pit  During  Construction 220 

A  Tunnel  View  Showing  the  Method  of  Lining  With  Brick 221 

Getting  Ready  for  the  Turbines -. 222 

A  Lateral  Tunnel  Junction _. 223 

A  Btrd's-Eye  View  and  Section  of  the  Niagara  Installation 228 

Section  Elevation  of  the  Power  House  and  Wheel-Pit  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company,  to  Coutaiu 

Ten  5000  Horse-Power  Electric  Generators,  and  Ten  5000  Horse- Power  Turbines 230 

In  the  Main  Tunnel 231 

The  General  Power  Plan 232 

The  Main  Power  Station  and  the  Transformer  House,  with  Connecting  Bridge .  233 

Section  of  Wheel  and  Governor  Designed  by  Escher,  Wyss  &  Co 234 

Section  and  Plan  of  Escher,  Wyss  &  Co.'s  Wheel 235 

Section  of  Governor  Designed  by  Escher,  Wyss  &  Co 236 

Another  Plan  of  Wheel  designed  by  Escher,  Wyss  &  Co 237 

Half  Sectional  Plan  of  Wheel  Designed  by  Faesch  &  Piccard 238 

General  Elevation  of  Faesch  &  Piccard  Design 238 

Riveting  up  the  Penstock  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Paper  Company's  Plant 239 

A  View  of  the  Wheel-Pit  During  an  Early  Stage  of  Construction 240 

The  Mouth  of  the  Tunnel 241 

One  of  the  Niagara  Power  Company's  5000  Horse-Power  Turbines  Designed  by  Faesch  &  Piccard,  Geneva, 

Switzerland.    Built  by  the  I.  P.  Morris  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa 242 

Section  of  the  Turbine 243 

Vertical  Section  Through  Lower  Wheel 244 

One  of  the  Shaft  Bearings 244 

One  of  the  Turbine  Castings _. 245 

General  Elevation.    Faesch  &  Piccard  Design 246 

Section  of  Governour.      Faesch  &  Piccard  Design 247 

Sectional  View  of  Governour.    Faesch 248 

Penstock  Connection  with  Turbine 249 

The  Faesch  &  Piccard  Governour  in  Place 250 

The  Interior  of  the  Power-House,  Showing  One  Generator  Completed 254 

Diagram  of  a  Multi-Phase  System  of  Electrical  Transmission  and  Distribution 256 

One  of  the  5000  Horse- Power  Armatures 257 

A  Field  Ring  Ready  to  be  Lowered  on  a  Generator  Shaft 258 

The  First  Generator  in  Position  in  the  Power  House  at  Niagara 259 

Side  Elevation  of  One  of  the  Generators 260 

A  Top  View 260 

Front  Elevation  and  Section  Through  Foundation 261 


INDEX   OF  JLLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Partial  Longitudinal  Section  of  the  Power-House  and  Wheel-Pit 262 

Cross  Section  of  Power  House  and  Wheel-Pit 263 

Vertical  Section  of  One  of  the  5000  Horse-Power  Generators 264 

Horizontal  Section . 265 

The  Armature  of  the  Second  Generator  in  Place 266 

The  Armature  Support  and  Core 267 

Side  View  of  Casting  Carrying  Spider  for  Bearings 267 

End  View  of  the  Castings. 267 

Details  of  Armature  Bearings 268 

One  of  the  Sheets  Making  up  the  Armature  Core 268 

Junction  of  Armature  Bars  and  Connectors  Before  Soldering  and  Insulating _ 268 

Electrically  Soldering  the  Connections  of  an  Armature  Winding 269 

The  Generator  Shaft . 270 

The  Driver  for  the  Field  Ring 270 

Test  Pieces  from  the  Generator  Shaft 271 

Nickel  Steel  Field  Ring,  Forged  Without  a  Weld  by  the  Bethlehem  Iron  Company,  diameter  u  ft.  714  in.  272 
Solid  Ingot  of  Fluid  Compressed  Steel.      Used  for  Making  the  Forged  Field  Ring.    Length,  197  in.;  Dia- 
meter, 54  in.;  Weight,  120,000  Pounds 274 

Compressed  Steel  Ingot  with  Hole  Through  Centre,  Preparatory  to  Forging _ 275 

A  Field  Pole  with  Winding  in  Place.    Weight,  2800  Pounds 276 

A  Field  Pole - 276 

Field  Ring  with  Poles  and  Bobbins  in  Place 277 

Method  of  Balancing  the  Driver  and  Field  Ring. 278 

Turning  the  Field  Ring  in  the  Westinghouse  Shops 279 

One  of  the  Generator  Foundations ....-, 280 

The  Switchboard  Structure 281 

Diagram  Showing  the  Connections  of  the  Generators  with  Local  and  Long  Distance  Feeders 282 

Plan  of  Power  and  Transformer  Houses — 283 

One  End  of  the  Power  House 285 

The  Organization  of  the  Switchboard  Apparatus 286 

Some  Details  of  the  Switchboard 288 

An  Alternating  Current  Ammeter,  Niagara  Type. 289 

A  Section  of  the  Habirshaw  Cable 291 

One  of  the  Main  Switches 292 

A  200  Kilowatt  Rotary  Transformer  Used  as  an  Exciter 293 

A  100  Kilowatt  Transformer 294 

Details  of  the  100  Kilowatt  Step  Down  Transformer 295 

The  American  Falls  at  Niagara 296 

Chart  Showing  the  Magnetic  Qualities  of  the  Field  Ring 297 

The  Main  Street 307 

Lauds  of  the  Niagara  Power  and  Development  Companies. 308 

Another  Street  View  in  Echota 309 

The  Sewage  Disposal  Works 310 

Section  and  Elevation  of  the  Sewage  Disposal  Building. 310 

Plan  of  Station  for  Wells  and  Pumps,  Sewage  Disposal  and  Electric  Lighting...! 311 

Cross  Section  of  Sewage  Settling  Tanks 311 

The  Interior  of  the  Sewage  Disposal  Works 312 

Plan  of  Improvement  of  Lands  of  the  Niagara  Development  Company  at  Echota 313 

Cross  Section  of  an  Echota  Street  with  Telford-Macadam  Pavement 314 

Cross  Section  of  the  Boulevard  at  Echota 314 

One  of  the  Catch  Basins  for  the  Drainage  System 315 

TheSchoolat  Echota ... 316 

Elevations  and  Plans  of  One  of  the  Small  Houses  at  Echota 317 

Elevations  and  Plans  of  One  of  the  Larger  Houses  at  Echota 318 

Assembly  Room,  Store  and  Houses  at  Echota 319 


INDEX  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

PAGE 

Looking  Down  One  of  the  Streets  at  Echota 320 

The  6000  Horse-Power  Station  at  Geneva,  Switzerland,  Completed  in  1886 326 

The  New  Power  House  Near  Geneva,  Containing  Fifteen  Turbines  of  1200  Horse-Power  Each 327 

The  Stoney  Dam  Near  Geneva,  Built  in  1895 . 328 

The  Interior  of  the  6000  Horse-Power  Station  at  Geneva - 329 

Winter  at  the  Falls _ 333 

The  Electric  Plant  of  the  Pittsburgh  Reduction  Company  at  Niagara 334 

Direct  Current  Side  of  the  Rotary  Converters  and  the  Low  Tension  Switchboards 335 

Two  of  the  Rotary  Converters  and  also  Two  of  the  Static  Transformers  in  the  Pittsburgh  Reduction 

Company's  Plant T 336 

The  Alternating  Current  Side  of  the  Rotary  Converters,  the  Alternating  Current  Switchboards  and  Static 

Transformers 337 

One  Thousand  Horse-Power  Static  Transformer  at  the  Works  of  the  Carborundum  Company,  Built  by 

the  General  Electric  Company,  New  York 338 

Another  View  of  the  Static  Transformer 339 

The  Internal  Make-up  of  the  Carborundum  Company's  Large  Static  Transformer.    This  Transformer 

Reduces  the  Pressure  of  the  Two  Phase  Alternating  Current  From  2400  to  200  Volts. 340 

The  Carborundum  Company's  One  Thousand  Horse-Power  Current  Regulator 341 

Map  of  the  United  States,  Showing  the  Commercial  Possibilities  of  Niagara  Power _.  ._ 342 

Putting  Down  Cable  Conduits  at  Niagara 343 

An  Electric  Hoisting  Plant  at  Boleo,  Mexico 344 

Cross  Section  of  a  Cable  Conduit _ '. 345 

An  Alternating  Current  Induction  Motor  Geared  to  a  Hoist 346 

An  Electric  Diamond  Drill  for  Prospecting  Work _ 347 

Frame  of  the  Large  Regulator  of  the  Carborundum  Company.. 348 

An  Electrically  Driven  Blower 349 

A  250  Horse-Power  Three-Phase  Alternating  Current  Motor -_ 3So 

Centrifugal  Pump  with  Direct  Connected  Motor 351 

Special  Porcelain  "  Double-Petticoated ' '  Insulator  for  High  Tension  Transmission  Lines 353 

A  Direct  Current  Electric  Motor  Geared  to  a  Pump 354 

An  Electric  Rotary  Coal  Drill 355 

A  Modern  Direct  Current,  Slow  Speed  Electric  Motor.. 356 

A  Typical  Electric  Street  Car  Motor,  Twenty-Five  Horse-Power 357 

Diagram  Showing  an  Example  of  Long-Distance  Electric  Power  Tra  nsmission  and  Distribution  358 

A  Typical  Alternating  Current  Induction  Motor  of  125  Horse-Power ._  359 

Ninety-Five  Ton  Electric  Locomotive  Built  for  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railroad  at  Baltimore,  Md.,  by  the 

General  Electric  Company  of  New  York _ 360 

An  Electric  Mine  Locomotive 36i 

The  First  Known  Picture  of  Niagara  Falls 366 

The  Cataract  of  Niagara  with  the  Country  Adjacent 369 

The  White  Man's  Fancy _ 372 

The  Red  Man's  Fact ... 373 

The  Building  of  the  Griffon,  1679 _ _  374 

The  Capture  of  Fort  George,  1813 „ 375 

The  Steamer  Caroline  Burnt  and  Forced  Over  the  Falls  on  December  29,  1837.. 381 

A  Recent  View  of  Niagara  Falls 382 


I 


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R  corqplete  story 

of 
great   Niagara 

comprised  in  ten  articles, 
nearly  t~wo  n^dred  illustrations, 
including  portraits  of  tne  officers  and 
directors  of  tl\e  Cataract  Construction  Company, 

tl\e  n\en\bers  of 

International  Niagara  Falls  Coir\rr\ission, 
and 


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supervision  tl\ 

carried  out. 


-*-+* 


To  drive"  the  roaring  loom  of  Time          \ 

itself."—  JAMES  RUSSELL  LOWELL. 


JOHN    JACOB    ASTOR. 


I 


GEORGE    S.    BOWDOIN. 


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FRANCIS  LYNDE  STETSON  is  the  first  vice- 
president  of  the  Cataract  Construction  Com- 
pany, and,  as  such,  is  among  the  best 
qualified  to  present  a  general  and  compre- 
hensive account  of  the  use  of  Niagara  water 
power. 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


VOL.  VIII. 


JULY,    1895. 


No.  3. 


THB    HORSESHOE    FALLS. 


THE  USE  OF  THE  NIAGARA  WATER  POWER. 

By  Francis  Lynde  Stetson, 


SINCE  Father  Rageneau,  in  1648, 
wrote  to  his  Father  Superior  con- 
cerning Niagara,  ' '  a  cataract  of 
fearful  height, ' '  spectators  by  the  million 
unconsciously  have  revealed  something 
of  themselves  in  various  efforts  to  dis- 
close to  others  the  essential  character  of 
the  Falls  of  Niagara,  confessedly  incom- 
parable with  any  other  natural  object. 
To  souls  sensitive  to  the  beautiful  and 
the  sublime,  the  plunging  torrent  has 
appealed  by  the  stateliness  of  its  stream, 
the  brilliance  of  its  boisterous  rapids, 
and  the  deep  glassy  green  of  its  silent 
foreboding  brink,  as  well  as  by  its  drop 


into  the  seemingly  infinite  depth,  from 
which  there  comes  to  him  who  listens 
the  note  of  the  welcoming  abyss,  deeper 
than  the  diapason  of  any  organ's  pipe. 
To  most,  the  first  impression,  and  to 
many  the  enduring  impression,  is  that 
of  awe,  in  which  the  subjective  mood 
prevails  and  a  certain  sense  of  personal 
danger  dominates  all  other  thoughts  of 
this  mighty  moving  flood,  pouring 
resistlessly  down  through  the  gorge, 
which,  for  itself,  it  has  forced  through 
multiplied  strata  of  rocks  of  many  ages. 
Danger  there  certainly  is,  and  death  in 
this  resistless,  remorseless  tide  has  been 


Copyright,  1895,  by  THE  GASSIER  MAGAZINE  COMPANY.    All  rights  reserved. 


173 


174 


GASSIER* S  MAGAZINE. 


THE  FALLS   FROM   PROSPECT   POINT. 


THE  USE  OF  THE  NIAGARA    WATER  POWER. 


found  and  also  has  been  sought  by 
hundreds ;  but  notwithstanding  its 
appalling  aspect,  it  is  through  this  very 
sense  of  resistless  power  that  the  Falls 
speak  to  minds  of  great  dignity  and 
self-restraint,  and  lead  them  to  observe 
as  did  Mr.  Carter  of  New  York,  in  his 
characteristically  fine  oration  at  the 
opening  of  Niagara  Park,  that  the 
c '  sense  which  responds  to  this  magnifi- 
cent motion  ' '  is  the  ' '  sense  of  power. ' ' 
And  why  should  it  not  be  so  ?  Nearly 


The  ordinary  flow  has  been  found  to  be 
about  275,000  cubic  feet  per  second, 
and  in  its  daily  force,  equal  to  the 
latent  power  of  all  the  coal  mined  in 
the  world  each  day — something  more 
than  200,000  tons. 

This  natural  comparison  at  once  sug- 
gests, as  through  the  century  it  has 
invited,  an  estimate  of  this  power  in  the 
terms  of  mechanics,  and  it  has  been 
computed  by  Professor  Unwin  that  these 
falls  represent  theoretically  seven  mil- 


A   VIEW   OF    THE   OLD    MILLING   DISTRICT 


6000  cubic  miles  of  water,  pouring 
down  from  the  upper  lakes  with  90,000 
square  miles  of  reservoir  area,  reach 
this  gorge  of  the  Niagara  river  at  a 
point  where  its  extreme  width  of  one 
mile  is  by  islands  reduced  to  two 
channels  of  only  3800  feet.  Here,  in 
less  than  half  a  mile  of  rapids,  the 
Niagara  river  falls  55  feet,  and  then, 
with  a  depth  of  about  20  feet  at  the 
crest  of  the  Horse  Shoe  Falls,  plunges 
165  feet  more  into  the  lower  river. 


lion  horse-power  (others  think  more), 
and  for  practical  use,  without  appreciable 
diminution  of  the  natural  beauty,  sev- 
eral hundreds  of  thousands  of  horse- 
power. The  idea  of  subjecting  to  indus- 
trial uses  some  part  of  the  enormous 
power  of  Niagara  Falls  has,  since  the 
location  of  the  pioneer  saw-mill  in  1725, 
occupied  the  minds  and  stirred  the  inven- 
tive faculty  of  engineers,  mechanics  and 
manufacturers.  Early  in  the  century, 
the  pioneers  in  the  locality,  to  which 


I76 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


FROM  GOAT  ISLAND,   LOOKING  TOWARDS  LUNA  ISLAND. 


THE  USE  OF  THE  NIAGARA    WATER  POWER. 


PETER  EMSLIE'S   MAP,   SHOWING   THE   EARLY  CANAL   AND   RESERVOIR   PROPOSED   IN    1846. 


they  then  gave  the  name  of  Manchester, 
contemplated  the  probability,  but  were 
unable  to  demonstrate  the  practicability, 
of  reducing  this  mighty  force  to  obe- 
dient and  useful  service.  They  dwelt 
upon,  and  to  some  extent  exploited, 
the  idea;  but  before  the  development 
or  adoption  of  any  method  promising 
satisfactory  returns,  steam  and  steam 
engines  had  properly  attained  such  a 
place  in  the  favourable  estimation  of 
manufacturers  that  water-powers  in 
general,  and  especially  those  incon- 
veniently situated  and  variable  in  quan- 
tity and  quality,  fell  into  comparative 
disesteem. 

The  economical  production  and  dis- 
tribution of  coal  for  use  in  connection 
with  the  engines  developed  by  the  gen- 
ius of  Corliss  and  his  fellows,  naturally 
led  manufacturers  to  prefer  to  produce 
their  own  power  at  their  own  homes 
or  in  proximity  to  favourable  markets, 
rather  than  to  set  out  in  search  of  re- 
mote and  uncertain  water-powers.  But 
some  water-powers  were  operated  and 
continuously  employed,  notwithstand- 
ing, and  even  during,  the  steady  de- 
velopment of  the  advantages  of  steam 


power.  No  one  needs  much  persuasion 
to  admit  that,  except  for  the  decided 
merits  of  water-power  even  in  compe- 
tition with  steam,  the  names  of  Man- 
chester, Lowell,  Lawrence,  Holyoke, 
Paterson,  Cohoes  and  Minneapolis, 
in  the  United  States,  would  possess' 
nothing  like  their  present  significance. 
In  view  of  the  obvious  advantages 
offered  by  water-powers  such  as  these, 
Augustus  Porter,  one  of  the  principal 
proprietors  at  Niagara,  in  1842  pro- 
posed a  considerable  extension  of  the 
system  of  canals  or  races  then  em- 
ployed, and  in  January,  1847,  in  connec- 
tion with  Peter  Emslie,  a  civil  engineer, 
he  published  a  formal  plan,  which  be- 
came the  subject  of  negotiations  with 
Walter  Bryant  and  Caleb  S.  Woodhull, 
formerly  Mayor  of  New  York.  An 
agreement  was  finally  reached  with 
these  gentlemen  by  which  they  were  to 
construct  a  canal,  for  which  they  were 
to  receive  a  right  of  way,  100  feet  in 
width,  together  with  a  certain  amount 
of  land  at  its  terminus.  After  various 
interruptions,  in  1861,  their  successor, 
Horace  H.  Day,  completed  a  canal, 
about  35  feet  in  width,  8  feet  in  depth 


i73 


CASS/EX'S  MAGAZINE. 


THE   NIAGARA  FALLS   RAILWAY   SUSPENSION   BRIDGE. 


and  4400  feet  in  length,  by  which  the 
water  of  the  upper  Niagara  river  was 
brought  to  a  basin  or  reservoir  at  the 
high  bluff  of  the  lower  river,  214  feet 
above  the  water  below.  Upon  the 
margin  of  this  basin  have  been  con- 
structed various  mills,  to  whose  wheels 
the  water  was  conducted  from  the  canal 
and  discharged  by  short  tunnels  through 
the  bluff  into  the  river  below,  so  that  in 
1885,  about  10,000  horse-power,  sub- 
stantially the  available  capacity  of  the 
canal,  was  in  use. 

In  that  year  there  happened  to  be  at 
Niagara  an  able  and  experienced  engi- 
neer, engaged  in  the  State's  service  in 
laying  out  a  proposed  reservation,  just 
as  nearly  50  years  before  he  had  been 
there  engaged  in  assisting  the  State 
Geological  Survey  of  Prof.  James  Hall, 
who,  in  his  report  on  the  Niagara  river 
district  for  1843,  specially  mentions  the 
services  of  Thomas  Evershed.  During 
this  very  long  interval,  Mr.  Evershed 
had  been  engaged  as  a  public  engineer, 
usually  upon  the  Erie  canal  in  that 
vicinity,  and  it  was  natural  that  he 
should  be  called  upon  to  devise  a  sys- 
tem for  the  development  of  hydraulic 
power  from  the  river  with  which  his 


whole  professional  career  had  been 
associated,  his  last  great  work  being  in 
connection  with  the  effort  to  protect 
x  Niagara,  in  its  principal  character  as 
the  most  magnificent  and  impressive 
terrestrial  natural  object,  from  vandal- 
ism and  utilitarian  desecration.  This 
protection  of  the  natural  beauty  of 
Niagara  was  the  underlying  idea  in  his 
conception  and  development  of  his  plan, 
which  contemplated  the  taking  of  water 
and  the  development  of  power  in  a  dis- 
trict more  than  a  mile  above,  and  out 
of  sight  of  the  Falls,  with  an  outlet 
tunnel  discharging  inconspicuously  at 
the  river's  edge  below  the  Falls,  involv- 
ing the  diversion  of  less  than  four  per 
cent  of  the  total  flow  of  the  river,  and  a 
reduction  of  the  depth  of  the  water  at 
the  crest  of  the  Falls  by  less  than  two 
inches. 

After  conference  with  Mr.  Evershed, 
Capt.  Charles  B.  Gaskill,  the  oldest 
user  of  power  on  the  hydraulic  canal, 
with  seven  other  gentlemen  of  Niagara 
Falls,  obtained  from  the  legislature  of 
the  State  of  New  York,  a  special  char- 
ter, passed  March  31,  1886,  which 
has  since  been  amended  and  enlarged 
by  several  successive  acts.  Upon  July 


THE  USE  OF  THE  NIAGARA    WATER  POWER. 


179 


i,  1886,  Mr.  Evershed  issued  his  first 
formal  plan  and  estimate^  which  was 
considered  worthy  of  discussion  in 
Appleton's  Cyclopaedia  for  1887, 
where  it  is  described  in  general  terms. 
But,  of  course,  the  publication  of  this 
plan  invited  and  encountered  the  demon- 
stration of  its  absolute  impracticability, 
as  well  as  the  improbability  of  the  use  of 
the  power  if  developed.  In  Bradstreets, 
October  30,  1886,  appeared  a  letter  from 
Mr.  Edward  Atkinson  (completely  an- 
swered by  Mr.  Clemens  Herschel  on 
November  6,  1886),  undertaking  to 
show  that  cheap  power  alone  would 
not  bring  people  to  Niagara  Falls; 
and,  somewhat  later,  on  August  8, 
1889,  there  appeared  in  The  Nation, 
a  carefully  written  article  tending  to 
show  that  Mr.  Evershed' s  tunnel  would 
not  be  practicable  for  the  production  of 
power,  nor  commercially  profitable. 
But  strange  to  say,  these  objections 
have  been  fully  answered  through  the 
demonstration  of  actual  experience. 

For  three  years  the  originators  of  the 
Niagara  water-power  project  were  en- 
gaged in  convincing  capitalists  that  it 
would  be  commercially  profitable  to 


Bellows  Falls  and  Cohoes,  and  would 
very  largely  exceed  the  actually  devel- 
oped power  of  all  these  places,  and 
Augusta,  Paterson  and  Minneapolis  in 
addition.  Considering  the  further  right 
to  construct  an  additional  tunnel  of  100,- 
ooo  horse-power  on  the  American  side, 
and  to  develop  at  least  250,000  horse- 
power on  the  Canadian  side,  it  was 
readily  recognized  how  vastly  this  local 
development  promised,  in  extent,  to 
surpass  the  combined  water-powers  of 
almost  any  American  State  or  section. 

In  the  special  volume  upon  water- 
power,  constituting  part  of  the  United 
States  census  of  1880,  it  is  stated  that 
there  were  then  in  operation  55,404 
water  wheels,  with  an  average  of  22.12 
horse-power  each,  making  in  the  ag- 
gregate 1,225,379  horse-power.  It 
thus  appeared  that  the  450,000  horse- 
power available  to  the  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Company  represented  more  than 
a  third  of  the  power  of  all  the  wheels 
in  the  United  States  in  1880. 

The  question  of  the  practical  import- 
ance of  the  Niagara  power  being  settled, 
Mr.  Atkinson's  next  question  arose  as 
to  the  advantages  of  Niagara  as  a  lo- 


Above  Sea  Level 
5SI  fett 


Above  Sea  Level 
SSI  feet 


Above  Sea  Level 
573  feet 


FALLS 


DEPTHS  AND  LEVELS  OF  THE  GREAT  LAKES. 


undertake  and  complete  the  develop- 
ment of  Mr.  Evershed' s  plan,  and  the 
first  step  necessary  to  be  taken  was 
to  demonstrate  the  advantages  of  the 
locality.  It  was  shown  that  the  ca- 
pacity of  the  original  tunnel,  about 
120,000  horse-power,  would  exceed 
the  combined  theoretical  horse-power 
of  Lawrence,  Lowell,  Holyoke,  Turners 
Falls,  Manchester,  Windsor  Locks, 


cality,  and  to  this,  answer  was  readily 
made  by  pointing  out  that  there  in  the 
very  heart  of  densest  population,  touched 
by  nearly  all  the  East  and  West  trunk- 
lines,  within  a  night's  journey  of  Boston, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  Washington, 
Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  Cleveland,  Chi- 
cago, Toronto  and  Montreal,  was  a 
natural  port  of  the  great  lakes,  sus- 
tained by  a  salubrious  and  fruitful 


i8o 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


country,  and  protected  by  the  orderly 
and  established  institutions  and  tradi- 
tions of  the  most  opulent  and  populous 
of  the  States  of  the  Union.  The  exist- 
ence of  manufacturing  establishments 
sufficient  to  exhaust  all  of  the  power 
then  supplied  by  the  hydraulic  canal, 
and  the  subsequent  applications  for  the 
new  power,  were  and  are  the  complete 
answer  to  the  question  whether,  as  a 
locality,  Niagara  would  be  attractive  to 
users  of  power. 

But  the  question  still  remained 
whether  water-power  could  be  used  suc- 
cessfully in  competition  with  steam, 
and  there  are  few  places  in  respect  of 
which  this  question  can  be  asked  with 
more  deadly  effect;  for,  in  the  city  of 
Buffalo,  and  indeed  through  the  entire 
length  of  the  district  lying  north  of 
Pittsburgh,  good  steaming  coal  can  be 
obtained  at  less  than  $i .  50  a  ton.  With 
coal  at  this  price,  it  would,  at  first, 
seem  impracticable  to  establish  any 
power  plant  capable  of  operating  in 
competition  with  steam.  But  a  careful 
examination  has  satisfied  me,  at  least, 
that  with  coal  furnished  free  at  the 
furnace  yard,  it  would  still  be  economical 
for  the  manufacturer  to  employ  water- 
power  such  as  that  at  Niagara.  When 
in  England  in  1890,  I  was  told  by  an 
eminent  gentleman  that  it  was  useless 
to  discuss  the  profitable  employment  of 
water-power,  for,  as  he  said,  ' '  you  can 
produce  steam-power  from  coal  at  a 
cost  of  a  farthing  an  hour,"  to  which  I 
answered: — "  Very  well,  let  us  work  out 
the  problem!  Coal,  at  a  farthing  an 
hour,  would,  in  America,  represent  five 
cents  for  a  day  of  ten  hours,  or  12  cents 
for  a  day  of  24  hours,  which  is,  for  300 
days  in  the  year,  $15  for  the  short  day 
and  $36  for  the  long  day  for  fuel  only. 
At  Niagara  we  will  gladly  furnish  con- 
tinuous 24-hour  water-power  for  $15  a 
year,  in  any  considerable  quantity." 

After  careful  consideration,  the  offi- 
cers of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Com- 
pany reached  the  conclusions  that  24- 
hour  steam  horse-power  is  not  produced 
anywhere  in  the  world  for  less  than  $24 
a  year;  that  in  the  production  of  the 
steam-power  the  cost  of  the  fuel  does  not 
represent  more  than  one-half  of  the 


total  cost;  that  very  few,  if  any,  manu- 
facturers have  ever  kept  arry  separate 
account  of  the  cost  of  their  power,  or 
have  any  actual  knowledge  of  its  cost; 
and  that,  aside  from  the  cost  of  the 
power,  many  conveniences  will  come 
from  the  employment  of  power  as  it 
may  be  furnished  from  the  Niagara 
river. 

In  view  of  all  these  considerations,  in 
the  year  1889  the  present  interests  in 
the  Niagara  Falls  power  development 
were  combined  in  a  new  corporation 
called  the  Cataract  Construction  Com- 
pany, whose  acceptance  of  the  construc- 
tion contract  rested  upon  two  propo- 
sitions :  First,  that  with  proper  organ- 
ization and  development  the  Niagara 
project  would  be  valuable  solely  as  a 
hydraulic  installation;  and,  secondly, 
that  it  gave  promise  of  becoming,  within 
the  very  near  future,  vastly  more  valu- 
able as  a  source  of  power  for  transmis- 
sion. This  company  was  the  outgrowth 
of  the  very  keen  and  appreciative 
interest  in  these  propositions  shown  by 
the  following  gentlemen  in  the  order 
named:  William  B.  Rankine,  Francis 
Lynde  Stetson,  J.  Pierpont  Morgan, 
Hamilton  McK.  Twombly,  Edward  A. 
Wickes,  Morris  K.  Jesup,  Darius 
Ogden  Mills,  Charles  F.  Clark,  Edward 
D.  Adams,  Charles  Lanier,  A.J.  Forbes- 
Leith,  Walter  Howe,  John  Crosby 
Brown,  Frederick  W.  Whitridge, 
William  K.  Vanderbilt,  George  S. 
Bowdoin,  Joseph  Larocque,  Charles  A. 
Sweet  of  Buffalo  and  John  Jacob  Astor, 
most  of  whom  have  served  as  officers 
and  directors  of  the  construction  com- 
pany, giving  freely  of  their  time  and 
experience  to  the  conduct  of  the  enter- 
prise. Among  all  these  names  it  may 
seem  invidious  to  select  any  for  special 
comment,  but,  after  the  early  and  con- 
tinuing interest  of  Mr.  Morgan  and 
Mr.  Mills,  and  the  later  accession  of 
Mr.  Astor,  it  was,  as  it  continues  to  be, 
a  matter  of  congratulation  to  the  Cata- 
ract Construction  Company  that  the 
origination,  the  development  and  the 
guidance  of  its  affairs  have,  from  the 
first,  received  the  intelligent  and  con- 
tinuous attention  of  its  president,  Mr. 
Edward  D.  Adams. 


THE   USE    OF  THE  NIAGARA    WATER   POWER.         181 


NEAR   PROSPECT   POINT   AT   NIGHT. 


OF  THE 

JTNIVERSITY 

-  CAUFORNIA- 


182 


GASSIER 'S   MAGAZINE. 


THE   WHIRLPOOL  RAPIDS   BELOW  THE   FALLS. 


THE  USE  OF  THE  NIAGARA    WATER  POWER. 


1 8; 


In  the  order  of  development,  of 
course,  the  first  step  was  the  adoption 
of  a  general  plan.  Dr.  Coleman  Sellers 
of  Philadelphia  having  been  retained  as 
general  consulting  engineer,  Mr.  Clem- 
ens Herschel,  formerly  of  Holyoke,  was 
engaged  as  hydraulic  engineer,  and,  in 
accordance  with  the  views  of  these 
gentlemen,  some  slight  modifications  of 


wheel-pit  in  the  power  house  at  the 
side  of  the  canal.  This  wheel-pit 
is  178  feet  in  depth,  and  is  connected 
by  a  lateral  tunnel  with  the  main  tun- 
nel, serving  the  purpose  of  a  tail- 
race,  7000  feet  in  length,  with  an  aver- 
age hydraulic  slope  of  six  feet  in  1000, 
the  tunnel  having  a  maximum  height  of 
21  feet  and  width  of  18  feet  10  inches, 
its  net  section  being  386  square 
feet.  Its  slope  is  such  that  a 
chip,  thrown  into  the  water  at 
the  wheel-pit,  will  pass  out  of 
the  portal  in  three  and  one-half 
minutes,  showing  the  water  to 
have  a  velocity  of  26%  feet  per 
second,  or  a  little  less  than  20 
miles  an  hour  when  running- 
at  its  maximum  capacity.  Over 


MAP  OF   NIAGARA    FALLS   AND   VICINITY,   SHOWING   THE   LOCATION  OF   THE   GREAT   TUNNEL. 


Mr.  Evershed's  proposition  were 
adopted.  Generally  speaking,  the  final 
plan  comprises  a  surface  canal,  250  feet 
in  width  at  its  mouth,  on  the  margin  of 
the  Niagara  river,  a  mile  and  a  quarter 
above  the  Falls,  extending  inwardly 
1700  feet,  with  an  average  depth  of 
about  12  feet,  serving  water  sufficient  for 
the  development  of  about  100,000  horse- 
power. The  solid  masonry  walls  of 
this  canal  are  pierced  at  intervals  with 
ten  inlets,  guarded  by  gates  which 
permit  the  delivery  of  water  to  the 


1000  men  were  engaged  continuously 
for  more  than  three  years  in  the  con- 
struction of  this  tunnel,  which  called 
for  the  removal  of  more  than  300,000 
tons  of  rock,  and  the  use  of  more  than 
16,000,000  bricks  for  lining.  The  con- 
struction of  the  canal,  and  especially  of 
the  wheel-pit,  178  feet  in  length,  with 
its  surmounting  power-house,  were 
works  of  corresponding  difficulty  and 
importance. 

After  conference  with  various  wheel- 
makers   in   the    United  States,    it  was 


184 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


I 
,d 

H 

2-3 
NO 


USE  OF  THE  NIAGARA    WATER  POWER. 


185 


found  that  while  American  water-wheels 
of  standard  grades  could  be  obtained  of 
considerable  excellence,  yet,  except  in 
the  case  of  the  Pelton  water-wheel,  it 
was  not  easy  to  find  wheels  suitable  for 
special  requirements  such  as  those  of 
the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company. 
The  conclusion,  therefore,  to  consider 
the  employment  of  wheels  of  special 
design,  which,  in  the  nature  of  things, 
involved  conference  with  foreign 
makers,  to  whom  alone  special  design 
had  become  a  matter  of  frequent  occur- 
rence, was  reached  upon  the  advice  of 
Mr.  Clemens  Herschel,  who  was  familiar 
with  the  use  of  the  wheels  at  Holyoke 
which  he  had  made  a  subject  of  careful 
study.  The  fact  that  Mr.  Herschel 
himself  advised  recourse  to  foreign  de- 
signers is  a  sufficient  answer  to  some 
New  England  criticism  that  we  did  not 
adopt  wheels  such  as  have  been  used 
at  Holyoke. 

But,  as  soon  as  careful  consideration 
was  given  to  the  subject  of  turbines, 
it  also  became  quite  apparent  that  it 
was  desirable,  contemporaneously  and 
from  the  beginning,  to  take  up  and  ex- 
amine the  question  of  power  transmis- 
sion, and  it  became  equally  apparent 
that  by  reason  of  the  rapid  advance  in 
the  art  and  science  of  the  development 
and  transmission  of  power,  even  the 
latest  books  upon  this  subject  had  be- 
come inadequate  to  our  demand  for  in- 
formation. In  consequence  of  these 
conditions,  Mr.  Adams,  while  in  Europe 
in  the  winter  of  1890,  happily  conceived 
the  idea  of  obtaining  and  perpetuating 
information  as  to  the  results  and  achieve- 
ments of  the  engineers  and  manufactu- 
rers of  the  world  not  yet  in  the  books, 
and,  in  conformity  with  this  purpose, 
established  in  London,  in  June,  1890, 
an  International  Niagara  Commission, 
with  power  to  award  $22,000  in  prizes. 

The  commission  consisted  of  Sir 
William  Thomson  (now  Lord  Kelvin) 
as  chairman,  with  Dr.  Coleman  Sellers 
of  Philadelphia,  Lieut. -Col.  Theodore 
Turrettini  of  Geneva,  Switzerland,  origi- 
nator and  engineer  of  the  great  water- 
power  installation  on  the  Rhone,  and 
Prof.  E.  Mascart  of  the  College  of 
France,  as  members,  and  Prof.  William 


Cawthorne  Unwin,  Dean  of  the  Central 
Institute  of  the  Guilds  of  the  City  of 
London,  as  secretary.  Inquiries  and 
examination  concerning  the  best  known 
existing  methods  of  development  and 
transmission  in  England,  France,  Switz- 
erland and  Italy,  were  made  personally 
by  the  officers  and  engineers  of  the  com- 
pany, and  competitive  plans  were  re- 
ceived from  twenty  carefully  selected 
engineers,  designers,  manufacturers  and 
users  of  power  in  England  and  the  Con- 
tinent of  Europe  and  also  in  America. 
All  of  these  plans  were  submitted  to  the 
commission  at  London  on  or  before  Jan- 
uary i,  1891,  and  awards  of  prizes  were 
made  in  respect  of  a  number  of  the  plans 
considered  worthy  by  the  commission. 

The  first  important  result  of  this 
commission  was  the  selection  of 
Messrs.  Faesch  &  Piccard  of  Geneva, 
as  designers  of  the  turbines,  of  which 
a  careful  description  by  Mr.  Clemens 
Herschel  is  given  elsewhere  in  this 
magazine.  It  is  enough  here  to  say 
that  these  wheels,  calculated  to  yield 
5000  horse-power  each,  are  intended 
for  a  position  in  the  wheel-pit,  140  feet 
below  the  surface,  to  which  water  is 
conducted  by  a  tube  or  pen-stock 
leading  from  the  service  canal  and  dis- 
charging between  the  twin  wheels,  from 
which  the  water  falls  away  into  the  side 
tunnel  conducting  it  to  the  main  tunnel 
and  thus  to  the  lower  river.  The  power, 
of  course,  is  developed  through  the 
drop  in  the  wheel-pit,  the  tunnel  serv- 
ing the  purpose  only  of  a  tail-race. 
Three  of  these  wheels  have  actually  been 
built  after  designs  of  Faesch  &  Piccard, 
by  the  I.  P.  Morris  Company,  of  Phila- 
delphia, and  are  now  in  place.  They 
are  about  five  feet  in  diameter.  The 
pen-stock,  7^  feet  in  diameter,  is  made 
of  steel,  and  the  constant  pressure  of 
its  column  of  water,  discharging  be- 
tween the  twin  turbine  wheels,  serves 
to  support  the  entire  weight  of  all  the 
revolving  parts,  namely,  the  weight  of 
the  wheels,  the  vertical  shaft  and  the  re- 
volving parts  of  the  generator  driven  by 
the  wheel,  to  which  reference  will  be 
hereafter  made. 

The  mechanical  problem  to  be  solved 
in    this    case,  viz. :    how    to    get    .sooo 


186 


GASSIER 'S  MAGAZINE. 


horse-power  from  the  point  of  develop- 
ment at  the  wheels  to  the  surface,  140 
feet  above,  was  considered  to  be  much 
less  difficult  than  that  presented  in  the 
case  of  an  Atlantic  steamer,  where  the 
motive  power  of  the  5000  horse-power 
engine  is  delivered  by  a  horizontal  shaft 
to  the  screw  at  the  stern  of  the  vessel, 
more  than  140  feet  away,  the  water- 
wheels  at  Niagara  being  our  engine,  the 
generator  at  the  surface,  our  screw, 
and  the  connecting  shaft  (adopted  in 
preference  to  belting  or  ropes),  140 
feet  in  length,  being  vertical  instead  of 
horizontal.  This  shaft  is  of  steel,  ^ 
inch  thick,  carefully  rolled  into  tubes, 
38  inches  in  diameter,  without  any 
riveted  vertical  seams  ;  but  at  several  in- 
tervals, where  journals  are  needed  to 
steady  this  vertical  shaft  on  fixed  collar 
bearings,  it  is  solid  and  at  those  points 
measures  1 1  inches  in  diameter.  While 
these  turbines  were  made  after  foreign 
designs,  the  contract  for  building  them 
was  given  to  and  was  performed  by  the 
I.  P.  Morris  Company,  of  Philadelphia, 
and,  upon  the  observation  of  competent 
and  disinterested  experts,  the  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Company  feels  no  hesitation 
in  inviting  general  observation  and  criti- 
cism of  this  unusually  difficult  con- 
struction. 

The  question  of  the  turbines  having 


been  thus  disposed  of,  it  became  neces- 
sary to  determine  upon  the  mode  of 
transmitting  the  power  to  be  developed 
from  them,  and  to  this  subject  the  care- 
ful attention  of  the  officers  and  engineers 
of  the  company  was  addressed  for  more 
than  three  years,  both  in  America  and 
Europe.  In  1 890,  four  different  methods 
of  power  transmission  were  seriously 
considered,  viz.,  that  by  manilla  or 
wire  rope,  that  by  hydraulic  pipes,  that 
by  compressed  air,  and  that  by  elec- 
tricity. How  rapid  has  been  the  pro- 
gress of  thought  upon  this  subject 
within  four  years,  maybe  realized  when 
I  say  that  in  1890,  I  was  advised  that 
power  could  be  transmitted  from  Ni- 
agara to  Buffalo,  not  by  electricity,  but 
only  by  compressed  air,  and  that  my 
adviser  was  Mr.  George  Westinghouse. 
But  methods  are  clearer  now  than  in 
1890,  and  this  largely  is  the  result  of  the 
competition  initiated  by  the  Interna- 
tional Niagara  Commission. 

Rapidly  summarizing  the  results  and 
incidents  of  a  tour  of  inspection  made 
by  Mr.  John  Bogart,  one  of  the  engineers 
of  the  company,  and  myself,  in  1890,  I 
may  observe  that  we  saw  five  instances 
of  transmission  of  power  by  manilla  or 
wire  ropes,  viz.,  at  Schaffhausen,  Win- 
terthiir,  Zurich  and  Fribourg,  in  Switz- 
erland, and  at  Bellegrade,  in  France, 


BUFFALO  AND  THE  TERRITORY  WHICH   PAYS  HER  TRIBUTE. 


THE  USE  OF  THE  NIAGARA    WATER  POWER. 


187 


NIAGARA   FALLS   IN   WINTER. 


all  of  these  installations  representing 
the  effect  of  the  original  installation 
under  Mr.  Moser  at  Schaffhausen  in 
1867.  Mr.  Moser,  a  gentleman  of  great 
intelligence,  was  among  the  first  to 
observe  that  the  use  of  water-power  had 
declined,  and  that  the  preference  for 
steam-power  had  developed,  because  of 
the  common  inconvenience  of  the  bring- 
ing of  the  factory  to  the  source  of  the 
water-power,  which  inconvenience  he 
thought  to  obviate  by  taking  the  power 
to  the  convenient  site  of  the  factory. 
This  he  did  by  the  use  of  the  wire  ropes, 
sometimes  to  the  distance  of  nearly  a 
mile.  But  while  this  device  served  a  use- 
ful purpose,  it  developed  its  own  difficul- 
ties, especially  in  localities  affected  by 
cold  or  frost,  under  which  conditions 
the  wire  rope  frequently  slipped  on  the 
wheels,  an  occurrence  disastrous  to 
spinning-mills,  and  which  at  Schaff- 
hausen, is  now  leading  to  the  substitu- 
tion of  electricity  for  the  original  wire 
transmission. 


The  second  system  of  transmission 
visited  by  us  was  that  upon  a  very  large 
scale  at  Geneva,  in  Switzerland,  insti- 
tuted under  the  direction  of  Col.  Tur- 
rettini,  viz.,  hydraulic  transmission  of 
hydraulic  power  from  the  turbines, 
through  pipes  to  different  parts  of  the 
city,  even  for  the  purpose  of  operating 
dynamos  for  electric  lighting.  While 
this  method  of  hydraulic  transmission 
at  Geneva  did  excellent  work,  it  was 
already  recognized  in  1890  that  it  was 
not  equal  to  electrical  transmission  of 
power,  and  in  the  duplication  of  the 
work  now  being  made  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Col.  Turrettini,  electricity  is 
substituted  as  the  means  of  transmission. 

The  third  system  of  transmission, 
the  pneumatic,  had  been  developed  to 
a  very  large  extent  in  Paris,  upon 
the  system  of  Mr.  Popp,  under 
the  observation  of  that  most  accom- 
plished engineer,  Prof.  Riedler.  Im- 
mense steam-power  plants  were  estab- 
lished at  Belleville,  nearly  seven  miles 


i88 


GASSIER' S  MAGAZINE. 


from  the  center  of  Paris,  and  at  other 
points,  and  by  the  use  of  compressors 
over  7000  horse-power  was  distributed 
throughout  Paris,  operating  more  than 
30,000  pneumatic  clocks  in  the  hotels 
and  residences,  supplying  refrigeration 
for  the  stores  for  meats  in  the  Bourse 
de  Commerce,  and  also  an  installation 
for  electric  lighting  near  the  Madeleine. 
We  also  observed  the  Sturgeon  & 
Lupton  system  of  pneumatic  transmis- 
sion in  Birmingham,  and  later  the 
important  example  of  such  transmission 
from  the  Menominee  river,  seven  miles 
away,  to  the  Chapin  iron  mine,  at  Iron 
Mountain,  in  Michigan.  This  was  the 
system  which ,  in  1 890,  Mr.  Westinghouse 
thought  we  were  likely  to  adopt.  But, 
in  view  of  the  great  loss  of  power,  the 
Popp  system  yielding  only  38  per  cent, 
in  efficiency,  and  the  Birmingham  sys- 
tem yielding  only  52  per  cent.,  upon 
comparatively  short  distances,  it  did 
not  seem  wise  to  the  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Company  to  adopt  this  system, 
useful  and  valuable  as  it  is  in  many  par- 
ticulars; but  it  is  gratifying  to  be  able 
to  state  that  in  the  International  Niag- 
ara competition  a  prize  for  a  project 
for  distributing  power  pneumatically, 
was  awarded  to  the  Norwalk  Iron  Works 
Company,  of  Connecticut. 

A  very  interesting  debate  as  to  the 
comparative  merits  of  electricity  and 
compressed  air  was  conducted  in  Sep- 
tember, 1890,  in  my  presence,  between 
Prof.  Riedler  in  behalf  of  compressed 
air,  and  Mr.  Ferranti  in  behalf  of  elec- 
tricity. Mr.  Ferranti  said  that  the 
electrical  system  was  especially  adapted 
to  long  transmission  of  great  volumes, 
inasmuch  as  the  loss  increased  only  in- 
versely as  the  square  of  the  increase  of 
volume;  that  is,  if  a  loss  of  50  per  cent, 
were  to  be  assumed  for  transmission  of 
5000  volts,  that  loss  would  increase  only 
one-half  upon  doubling  the  volume — in 
other  words,  a  transmission  of  5000 
volts  with  a  loss  of  50  per  cent,  might 
be  increased  to  10,000  volts  with  a  loss 
of  only  25  cent,  of  the  increase,  or  37}^ 
per  cent,  of  'the  aggregate  amount,  or, 
stated  concretely,  though  5000  volts 
might  yield  only  2500  volts,  10,000 
would  yield  6250  volts  of  the  power  de- 


veloped. Prof.  Riedler  was  greatly  puz- 
zled by  Mr.  Ferranti' s  positive  state- 
ment, and  said  that,  if  well  founded,  the 
loss  in  the  case  of  electricity  differed  from 
that  of  every  other  known  force,  to  which 
Mr.  Ferranti  replied  that  this  undoubt- 
edly was  so,  and  that  the  differences 
were  altogether  to  the  advantage  of  its 
employment  upon  a  great  scale  for  such 
a  service  as  this.  Prof.  Riedler  con- 
cluded by  saying  to  Mr.  Ferranti  that 
if  his  statements  were  well  founded, 
there  could  be  no  question  but  that 
electricity  must  prevail  over  compressed 
air.  This  was  in  1890,  and  all  subse- 
quent experience  has  tended  to  confirm 
the  statements  of  Mr.  Ferranti,  Mr. 
Nikola  Tesla  having  quite  recently 
stated  to  me  that  if  the  company  would 
put  100,000  horse-power  upon  a  wire, 
he  would  deliver  it  at  commercial  profit 
in  the  city  of  New  York. 

The  fourth  method  of  power  trans- 
mission was  that  by  electricity,  which 
we  found  in  actual  operation  in  three 
places,  all  in  France — Oyannax,  Do- 
mene  and  Paris,  besides  the  short  trans- 
mission within  the  buildings  of  the  Oerli- 
kon  Company,  near  Zurich,  in  Switzer- 
land. Other  examples,  contempora- 
neously or  subsequently  developed, 
might  be  referred  to,  but  these  are  they 
upon  which,  in  1890,  the  Niagara  Com- 
pany founded  its  preference  for  electrical 
transmission.  At  Oyannax,  on  the  Jura 
Mountains,  in  the  Department  of  Ain, 
there  was  a  variety  of  small  interests,  the 
principal  one  being  the  manufacture  of 
silk,  the  smaller  ones  being  the  manu- 
facture of  tortoise-shell  combs  and  other 
lighter  articles,  in  which  not  more  than 
two  or  three  horse-powers  were  em- 
ployed for  the  running  of  small  saws  and 
polishers.  The  power  for  these  various 
simple  industries  was  derived  from  tur- 
bines in  the  Ain  river  at  Charminet,  dis- 
tant in  a  direct  line  about  five  miles  from 
the  use  of  the  power.  At  Domene,  op- 
posite the  Grande  Chartreuse,  in  the 
Dauphiny  Alps,  the  power  for  a  paper 
mill  was  drawn  from  a  glacier  in  the 
mountain,  four  miles  away,  almost 
straight  up  in  the  sky,  and  in  winter  act- 
ually inaccessible,  so  that  for  three 
months  the  only  communication  between 


THE  USE  OF  THE  NIAGARA    WATER  POWER.         '  189 


ICE  BRIDGE  UNDER   THE  FALLS. 


1 90 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


THE  HORSESHOE  FALLS  FROM   GOAT  ISLAND. 


THE   USE    OF  THE  NIAGARA    WATER   POWER. 


1QI 


the  mill  and  its  source  of  power  was  by 
telephone.  Here,  sleety  storms  prevail, 
and  snow  and  frost  to  an  extent  equal  to 
that  conceivable  at  Niagara,  and  yet  the 
results  were  so  satisfactory  that  Mr. 
Chevrant,  the  owner  of  the  mill,  said 
that  his  power  did  not  cost  him  over 
50  francs  a  year. 

But  passing  from  these  examples  of 
1890,  through  the  larger  experience  by 
which  power  was  transmitted  16  miles 
from  Tivoli  to  Rome,  and  for  a  long 
distance  at  Portland,  Oregon,  and  also 


quency  in  the  present  state  of  the  art  is 
desirable  for  arc  lighting,  and  is  neces- 
sary for  incandescent  lighting;  but 
having  regard  to  the  special  purpose, 
and  conditions  of  this  company,  it  was 
decided  to  adopt  that  method  and  sys- 
tem which  is,  on  the  whole,  best  fitted 
for  a  power  company  as  distinguished 
from  a  light  company.  It  is  only  proper 
to  say  that  in  the  adoption  of  the  alter- 
nating system,  as  opposed  to  the  con- 
tinuous system,  in  the  adoption  of  the 
two-phase,  as  distinguished  from  the 


ANOTHER  VIEW   NEAR   PROSPECT  POINT. 


at  Telluride,  in  Colorado,  in  all  which 
places  power,  generated  at  a  water- 
power  station,  is  transmitted  with  bare 
copper  wires  on  poles  for  ten  miles  and 
more  with  commercial  success,  the  Ni- 
agara Company,  in  December,  1891, 
under  the  advice  of  Prof.  Rowland,  of 
Johns  Hopkins  University,  Prof.  George^ 
Forbes,  of  London,  and  Prof.  Sellers,  of 
Philadelphia,  invited  competitive  plans 
and  estimates  for  the  development  ot 
its  electrical  power  and  of  its  transmis- 
sion both  locally  and  at  Buffalo.  As  the 
result  of  this  advice  and  this  competition, 
the  company  adopted  a  two-phase  alter- 
nating generator  of  5000  horse-power, 
developing  about  2000  volts  with  a 
frequency  of  25,  as  the  best  practicable 
unit  and  method  for  the  development 
of  electricity  for  power  purposes.  It  is 
distinctly  recognized  that  a  higher  fre- 


three-phase,  and  in  the  adoption  of  the 
frequency  of  25,  the  company  was 
diversely  advised  and  criticised,  and 
the  result  finally  reached  was  that 
which,  upon  the  whole,  under,  existing, 
present  conditions,  seemed  best. 

The  form  of  dynamo  employed  is 
that  devised  by  the  company's  electri- 
cal engineer,  Prof.  George  Forbes,  of 
London,  resembling  a  mushroom  or 
umbrella,  in  which  the  stalk  or  handle 
is  the  shaft  of  the  turbine,  and  the  cap 
is  the  revolving  part  of  the  generator, 
serving  the  purpose  also  of  a  fly-wheel 
for  the  .turbine,  this  special  advantage 
having  resulted  from  Prof.  Forbes' 
happy  idea  of  a  dynamo  in  which  the 
field  magnets  should  revolve  instead  of 
the  armature.  A  contract  for  three  such 
dynamos,  of  5000  horse-power  each, 
was  made  with,  and  was  erformed  bv, 


IQ2 


GASSIER*  S  MAGAZINE. 


the  Westinghouse  Company  at  Pitts- 
burgh. The  first  users  of  the  power 
developed  from  these  dynamos  were 
the  Pittsburgh  Reduction  Works,  man- 
ufacturers of  aluminum,  having  an 
establishment  also  at  Pittsburgh.  Their 
works  at  Niagara  are  upon  the  lands 
of  the  company,  2500  feet  distant  from 
the  power-house,  which  is  reached  by 
an  underground  conduit  for  electrical 
transmission.  After  a  competition  for 
a  design  and  construction  of  works  suit- 
able for  the  transmission  of  electrical 
power  to  this  establishment,  and  for 
concerting  the  alternating  into  a  con- 
tinuous current,  a  contract  was  made 
with,  and  carried  out  by,  the  General 
Electric  Company,  of  Schenectady,  N.  Y. 
At  the  same  time,  both  the  West- 
inghouse Company  and  the  General 
Electric  Company,  in  competition, 
have  submited  plans  for  the  transmis- 
sion of  electric  power  to  Buffalo,  and, 
upon  the  adoption  of  the  successful  plan, 
the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company  is 
prepared  to  proceed  with  the  construc- 
tion and  operation  of  a  plant  for  trans- 
mission of  electricity  to  that  important 
city  on  Lake  Erie. 

How  much  farther  such  power  may 
be  transmitted  at  a  commercial  profit 
remains  to  be  seen.  Messrs.  Houston 
&  Kennelly,  well  known  electrical 
engineers,  independently  reached  the 
conclusion  that  even  so  far  away  as 
Albany  (a  distance  of  330  miles)  elec- 
trical power,  with  a  steady  load  of  24 
hours  per  day,  can  be  delivered  at  $22. 14 
per  kilowatt,  which  is  cheaper  than  it 
can  be  produced  by  triple-expansion 
steam  engines,  though  the  cost  would 
be  proportionately  greater  for  lo-hour 
power.  Though  these  figures  are  grat- 
ifying, they  are  not  those  upon  which 
the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company  is 
resting  for  the  success  of  its  undertaking. 
Whether  or  not  electrical  power  can  be 
furnished  330  miles  away  at  less  than 
$24  a  day  for  24-hour  horse-power,  it 
can,  within  much  nearer  distances,  be 
furnished  at  such  prices  as  to  leave  very 


little  surplus  power  for  distribution  at 
such  remote  points  ;  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  if  it  be  practicable  to  transmit 
power  at  a  commercial  profit  in  these 
moderate  quantities  to  Albany,  the 
courage  of  the  practical  man  will  not 
halt  there,  but,  inclined  to  follow  the 
daring  promise  of  Nikola  Tesla,  would 
be  disposed  to  place  100,000  horse- 
power on  a  wire  and  send  it  450  miles 
in  one  direction  to  New  York,  the 
Metropolis  of  the  East,  and  500  miles 
in  the  other  direction  to  Chicago,  the 
Metropolis  of  the  West,  and  serve  the 
purposes  and  supply  the  wants  of  these 
greatest  urban  communities. 

Conscious  of  the  difficulties  of  trans- 
ferring, at  once,  large  industries  to  a 
new  site,  even  as  attractive  as  it  has 
made  Niagara,  with  its  new  industrial 
village  of  Echota,  designed  by  Stanford 
White,  and  the  new  Terminal  Railroad 
owned  by  kindred  corporations,  the 
Power  Company,  notwithstanding  en- 
couragement from  such  home  tenants  as 
the  great  Paper  Company  and  the  Alum- 
inium and  the  Carborundum  works,  has 
definitely  determined  to  furnish  its 
power  to  distant  consumers,  even  at 
the  risk  of  work  which,  in  some 
measure,  must  be  experimental,  though 
not  in  so  large  a  degree  as  many  may 
suppose.  Tivoli,  Turin,  Telluride,  Ge- 
noa, Williamette,  San  Bernardino,  all 
tell  that  commercial  success  lies  back  of 
the  brilliant  experiment,  in  1891,  of 
Lauffen  and  Frankfort,  109  miles 
apart. 

Buffalo,  being  reached,  is  only  on  the 
way  to  points  beyond.  How  far  be- 
yond, it  is  not  necessary  now  to  deter- 
mine ;  but  having  once  set  in  motion 
these  mighty  wheels,  we  may  at  least 
imagine  and  admire  a  bow  of  brilliant 
promise, — an  arc  of  electrical  energy 
stretching  from  the  Metropolis  of  the 
Atlantic  to  the  Metropolis  of  Lake 
Michigan,  whose  waters,  swelling  the 
mighty  flood  that  stirs  Niagara,  may 
then  be  called  upon  to  drive 

"  The  roaring  loom  of  time  itself." 


PROF.  WM.  CAWTHORNE  UNWIN  is  one  ot 
the  best  known  engineers,  authors  and 
teachers  of  engineering  science  in  England, 
as  well  as  in  America.  He  was  a  member  of 
the  International  Niagara  Falls  Commission. 


MECHANICAL   ENERGY   AND   INDUSTRIAL   PROGRESS. 


By   W.   Cawthorne  Unwin,  F.  R.  S. 


IT  is  an  honour  to  have 
been  invited  to  con- 
tribute a  short  article 
to  a  number  of  GASSIER' s  MAGAZINE, 
devoted  to  a  description  of  the  work  at 
Niagara,  and  it  is  pleasant  to  be  so 
associated  with  those  who  have  had  the 
task  of  planning  the  arrangements, 
superintending  the  works  and  design- 
ing the  machinery  of  that  grand  instal- 
lation. Writing,  however,  on  the 
European  side  of  the  Atlantic,  it  will 
be  wisest, — not  to  say  most  modest,— 
to  avoid  details  and  to  deal,  in  prefer- 
ence, with  some  general  consideration 
bearing  on  the  question  of  utilizing  and 
distributing  power. 

In  all  producing  industries,  there  are 
operations  requiring  greater,  and  op- 
erations requiring  less,  intelligence  ; 
operations  requiring  great  manual  skill, 
and  others  requiring  little  manual  skill. 
The  sub-division  of  labour  which  has 
arisen  in  modern  industries  has  for  its 
object  to  economize  the  intelligence 
and  skill  and  other  special  faculties  of 
the  workers.  A  factory  should  be  so 
arranged  that  manufacture  is  carried  on 
by  the  most  advantageous  number  of 
processes,  each  worker  doing  what  he 
is  best  fitted  to  do,  and  the  number  of 
workers  in  each  class  being  propor- 
tioned to  the  requirement  of  the  process 


allotted  to  it.  The  sub-division  of  man- 
ufacture in  this  way  greatly  facilitates 
the  introduction  of  machinery,  and  with 
the  use  of  machinery  comes  the  need 
for  motive  power,  more  constant  and 
tireless  than  muscular  effort.  Compar- 
ing the  last  hundred  years  with  any 
previous  period,  their  most  obvious 
characteristic  is  the  enormous  exten- 
sion of  the  use  of  mechanical  energy 
derived  from  natural  sources. 

At  first,  factories  were  placed  near 
waterfalls  from  which  alone,  at  that 
time,  mechanical  energy  could  be  easily 
obtained  in  sufficient  quantity.  Then, 
about  the  year  1790,  steam  power  be- 
gan to  replace  water  power.  For  a 
time,  the  factories  were  aggregated  near 
coal  fields.  To  some  extent  this  is  still 
the  case,  though  facilities  of  transport, 
due  again  to  the  use  of  natural  supplies 
of  energy,  permit  manufactures  to- 
spread  more  widely.  In  any  case,  the 
location  and  the  growth  of  manufactures 
have  been  largely  determined  by  facili- 
ties for  obtaining  cheaply  large  quanti- 
ties of  power. 

In  1832,  Charles  Babbage,  the  in- 
ventor of  the  well-known  calculating 
engine,  published  an  interesting  work 
on  "The  Economy  of  Machinery  and 
Manufactures. ' '  It  deals  with  the  guid- 
ing principles  underlying  modern  meth- 
ods of  manufacture,  then  already  so  far 
developed  as  to  be  recognized  as  con- 
stituting a  new  system.  It  is  curious 
that  Babbage  says  little  about  the  pro- 
duction of  power  or  its  cost,  though, 
clearly,  the  use  of  cheap  steam  power 
was  the  principal  factor  in  the  indus- 
trial change  which  he  discusses. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  book,  however, 
he  does  mention  that  the  application  of 
the  steam  engine  had  added  millions  to 
the  population  of  Great  Britain.  *  Then 

*  Mr.  Thomas  Hawksley  often  said  that  the  popu- 
lation of  Great  Britain  had  trebled  in  his  lifetime. 


196 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


THE  HORSE  SHOE  FALLS  AT  NIAGARA. 


he  points  out  that  the  source  of  steam 
power, — the  fuel, — is  limited  in  quan- 
tity, and  that  a  time  may  come  when 
the  coal  mines  will  be  exhausted.  He 
mentions  the  tides  as  an  inexhaustible 
source  of  energy,  if  means  could  be 
found  for  utilizing  tidal  action. 

Finally,    he    indulges    in   a    curious 


speculation.  He  points  out  that  hot 
springs,  which  have  been  observed  to 
flow  for  centuries,  unchanged  in  temper- 
ature, bring  to  the  surface  a  practically 
unlimited  supply  of  heat.  "  In  Ice- 
land," he  says,  "the  sources  of  heat 
are  plentiful  and  their  proximity  to 
large  masses  of  ice  almost  points  out 


MECHANICAL   ENERGY. 


197 


the  future  destiny  of  that  island.  The 
ice  of  its  glaciers  may  enable  its  inhabi- 
tants to  liquefy  the  gases  with  the  least 
expenditure  of  mechanical  force,  and 
the  heat  of  its  volcanoes  may  supply 
the  power  necessary  for  their  condensa- 
tion. Thus,  in  a  future  age,  power  may 
become  the  staple  commodity  of  the 
Icelanders." 

Manufacturers  have  not  yet  been 
driven  to  obtain  power  by  purchasing 
liquefied  oxygen  in  Iceland.  The  coal 
fields  are  not  yet  exhausted.  But  the 
pressure  on  trade  of  the  cost  of  the 
energy  required  is  undoubtedly  felt. 
This  may  be  inferred  from  the  ceaseless 
efforts  to  reduce  the  consumption  of 
steam  in  engines,  and  to  improve  the 
efficiency  of  boilers.  There  are  obvious 
causes  for  this.  As  trade  competition 
becomes  more  severe,  every  item  of  ex- 
penditure in  carrying  on  work  is  scruti- 
nized, and  out  of  many  small  economies 


a  material  advantage  is  reaped.  Even 
if  in  some  industries  the  annual  cost  of 
power  is  a  small  fraction  of  the  total 
expenditure,  any  saving  on  it  is  a  clear 
addition  to  profits. 

In  many  industries  there  is  an  in- 
creasing consumption  of  power,  proc- 
esses being  multiplied  to  secure  greater 
perfection  of  product,  and  then  the  cost 
of  power  is  an  increasing  tax.  Lastly, 
there  are  ne\y  electrical  and  chemico- 
electric  industries  in  which  the  amount 
of  power  used  is  very  large,  and  its 
cost  is  not  a  small  fraction  of  the  ex- 
penditure. In  electrical  industries, 
mechanical  energy  is  virtually  the  raw 
material  of  the  manufacture,  and  its 
cost  is  not  a  subordinate,  but  a  princi- 
pal, factor  in  the  cost  of  production. 

In  an  article  in  Engineering,  several 
years  ago,  Dr.  Coleman  Sellers  quoted 
some  estimates  of  the  amount  of  power 
required  in  different  industries.  These 


THE    FALLS    NEAR   PROSPECT    POINT. 


198 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


MECHANICAL    ENERGY. 


199 


are  given  conveniently  in  horse-power 
per  artizan  or  worker  employed.  Tak- 
ing the  cost  of  one  horse-power  year  at 
about  £12  or  $60,  which  is  a  moderate, 
average  estimate,  the  annual  expendi- 
ture per  worker  can  be  calculated  in 


is  enormously  greater.  From  figures 
known  to  be  reliable,  it  appears  that  in 
stations  in  England  the  cost  of  fuel 
alone  per  electrical  unit  sold,  apart  from 
interest  on  cost  of  boilers  and  engines 
and  wages  and  maintenance,  is  seldom 


IN   THE   NIAGARA   WHEEL-PIT    DURING   CONSTRUCTION. 


supplying  the  mechanical  energy  nec- 
essary to  make  his  labour  effective. 


Industry. 


Horse- power       Cost  per 
for  each          annum  per 
hand  em-        hand  em- 


ployed. 


Flour  and  grist  mills  13.20 

Lumber  sawing 5.56 

Cotton 1.49 

Paper 5.07 

Woollen  goods 1.23 

Iron  and  steel 2.82 

Agric'ral  implem'ts.  1.13 

Worsted  goods 0.87 


£ 

158  8 
66  12 
17  16 
60  16 
14  16 
33  16 
13  12 
10  8 


ployed. 


(792) 
(333) 

(89) 
(304) 

(74) 
(169) 

(68) 

(52) 


The  figures  in  the  last  column  are  the 
annual  charges,  additional  to  his  wages, 
for  each  worker  for  the  mechanical  en- 
ergy he  uses.  Obviously,  these  charges 
are  not  amongst  the  negligably  small 
items  of  a  manufacturer's  expenses. 

In  the  case  of  electric  lighting  sta- 
tions, the  proportionate  cost  of  power 


less  than  one  penny,  and  is,  in  some 
cases,  double  this.  But  the  ordinary 
selling  price  of  electricity  is  6  pence  per 
unit,  so  that  the  fuel  cost  alone  absorbs 
one-sixth  of  the  gross  income  of  the 
works,  and  in  some  cases  one-third. 

Up  to  the  present  time  by  far  the 
largest  part  of  the  mechanical  energy 
used  in  the  world  has  been  derived  from 
the  combustion  of  fuel.  But  in  the  best 
steam  engines  the  limit  of  possible 
economy  has  been  nearly  reached.  A 
good  deal  may  be  effected,  no  doubt, 
by  replacing  bad  engines  and  boilers 
by  good  engines  and  boilers,  but  there 
is  little  reason  to  hope  that  any  steam 
machinery  of  the  future  will  work  with 
materially  greater  economy  than  the 
best  at  present  in  use.  Nor  is  there 
much  hope  of  considerable  economy 
from  the  improvement  of  other  heat 


200 


CASSJER'S  MAGAZINE. 


engines.  Short  of  going  to  Iceland, 
there  is  only  one  widely  distributed, 
easily  utilizable  source  of  mechanical 
energy,  and  that  is  water  power. 

Under  favourable  conditions,  and 
utilized  on  a  large  scale,  the  cost  of 
water  power  near  the  waterfall  may  be 
one-tenth  or  one-twentieth  of  the  cost 
of  steam  power.  The  difference  is  so 
great  that  even  when  considerable  cost 
is  incurred  in  transmitting  the  power 
from  the  waterfall  to  localities  where 
power  is  required,  there  may  be  a  mar- 
gin of  economy  in  using  water  power. 
No  doubt,  in  many  cases,  especially 
where  very  great,  permanent  structures 
had  to  be  erected  to  render  falls  of 
considerable  height  available,  water 
power  has  proved  as  expensive  as  steam 
power. 

Modern  facilities  of  transmission  and 


distribution  have  greatly  altered  the 
conditions  of  the  problem,  and  engi- 
neers in  several  countries  have  come  to 
realize  the  value  of  the  waste  energy  of 
the  streams.  No  one  can  now  travel 
in  Switzerland  or  southern  Norway 
without  perceiving  that  a  new  impetus 
has  been  given  to  industry  by  the  de- 
velopment of  large  waiter  power  plants. 
In  Norway  a  new  industry, — the  paper 
pulp  trade, — has,  in  a  few  years,  become 
extremely  important,  and  the  manu- 
facture is  carried  on  entirely  by  cheap 
water  power,  derived  from  considerable 
falls  on  the  glacier-fed  streams.  In 
utilizing  a  great  waterfall  and  distribut- 
ing widely  cheap  mechanical  power, 
the  capitalists  and  engineers  at  Niagara 
are  helping  to  solve  one  of  the  most 
interesting  and  important  problems  of 
the  present  time. 


— 


ALBERT  HOWELL  PORTER  was  the  resident 
engineer  for  the  Cataract  Construction  Co. 
until  the  completion  of  the  tunnel,  and  the 
preliminary  work  was  clone  under  his  imme- 
diate supervision. 


SOME   DETAILS   OF  THE   NIAGARA  TUNNEL 


By  Albert  H.  Porter,  M.  Am.  Soc.   C  E. 


OPENING   CEREMONIES   AT    THE   BEGINNING   OF   THE   FIRST   SHAFT   FOR   THE   NIAGARA   TUNNEL. 


IN  the  latter  part  of  March,  1890, — 
a  short  while  ago  it  seems  when 
one  sees  the  progress  made  toward 
the  completion  of  the  greatest  water 
power  project  and  enterprise  of  our 
time,  which  has  changed  Niagara  Falls, 
then  only  a  village,  into  a  thriving  city 
with  the  eyes  of  the  world  upon  her, — 
surveys  were  commenced  of  the  lands 
of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company 
and  Cataract  Construction  Company, 


and  the  location  of  the  great  tunnel  from 
these  lands,  under  the  village  to  the  river 
below  the  Falls,  was  begun.  A  right  of 
way  had  been  acquired  previous  to  this, 
surveys  of  which  were  started  immedi- 
ately to  see  what  additional  grants 
would  be  necessary  to  locate  the  tunnel 
in  a  straight  line,  which  was  desirous 
for  constructional  and  hydraulic  rea- 
sons. 

This  right  of  way  was  largely  covered 

203 


204 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


with  buildings,  and  in  order  to  more 
readily  and  accurately  perfect  the  sur- 
face alignment,  a  tower  was  erected 
just  east  of  the  New  York  Central  & 
Hudson  River  Railroad  depot.  The 
tower  was  a  double  one,  over  fifty  feet 
in  height,  with  three  legs  to  each  tower, 


a  point  set  in  Canada,  from  which 
points  were  thrown  back  across  the 
gorge  to  the  tunnel  portal.  Points 
were  also  set  east  of  the  tower  for  the 
shafts  and  along  the  line  of  tunnel. 
The  profile  accompanying  shows  the 
location  of  the  tower,  its  use  and  ad- 


LOWERING    A   GIRDER   INTO   THE   WHEEL-PIT. 


the  inside  one  being  the  tripod  for  the 
alignment  instrument,  while  the  outside 
one,  which  was  entirely  clear  of  the 
tripod,  in  order  that  there  should  be  no 
jarring  or  vibration,  had  a  platform  for 
the  engineers  to  stand  on  in  sighting 
the  instrument.  From  the  top  of  the 
tower  all  buildings  could  be  cleared  and 


vantage,    and    will    readily  explain  the 
method  of  alignment. 

The  work  of  constructing  the  tunnel 
was  prosecuted  from  two  shafts  and  the 
portal  in  the  lower  river.  There  was 
also  a  shaft  at  the  portal  at  the  top  of 
the  sloping  bank  to  enable  a  straight 
lift  to  the  top  of  the  bluff.  Shaft  No.  i 


DETAILS   OF   THE  NIAGARA    TUNNEL. 


205 


206 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


was  located  2600  feet,  and 
shaft  No.  2,  5200  feet  from 
the  portal.  Points  for  dia- 
mond drill  borings  were  lo- 
cated along  the  line  of  the 
tunnel,  and  borings  were 
made  at  several  places. 
From  the  results  of  these 
borings  the  profile  showing 
the  rock  stratifaction  was 
made.  From  the  rock  cores 
taken  out  by  these  borings, 
it  was  thought  that  an  un- 
lined  tunnel  could  be  driven, 
but  after  sinking  the  shafts 
and  driving  the  headings  a 
short  distance,  the  rock  was 
found  to  be  of  such  a  char- 
acter that,  upon  consultation, 
it  was  deemed  necessary  to 
line  the  tunnel  throughout, 
not  only  to  make  a  safe  and 
practical  construction,  but  to 
have  a  more  perfect  tail  race. 

The  upper  stratum,  or  the 
Niagara  lime-stone,  is  a  hard 
rock,  but  is  full  of  seams, 
through  which  the  water 
comes  in  great  quantities, 
and  in  sinking  the  shafts  this 
water  caused  much  trouble 
and  greatly  increased  the 
difficulties  of  construction. 
In  order  to  intercept  the  wa- 
ter from  falling  to  the  bot- 
tom, the  plan  shown  in  one 
of  the  appended  illustrations 
was  devised,  by  which  gut- 
ters were  cut  and  built 
around  the  shafts  leading  to 
basins  or  sumps  in  the  sides 
of  the  shafts  where  pumps 
were  placed  and  the  water 
was  forced  to  the  surface.  In 
shaft  No.  i  fully  eight  hun- 
dred gallons  of  water  a  min- 
ute were  pumped. 

When  the  brick  work  of 
the  tunnel  was  completed 
and  the  working  shafts  were 
being  closed  up,  the  water 
again  caused  serious  obsta- 
cles to  the  construction  of 
the  brick  work  and  masonry. 
To  obviate  this,  tar  paper  was 


DETAILS    OF   THE  NIAGARA    TUNNEL. 


207 


put  over  the  lagging  on  the  timber- 
ing, and  gutters  built  to  lead  the 
water  to  weepers  or  holes  in  the 
brick  work,  located  at  the  wall  plates. 
Above  this  point  the  filling  was  of 
dry  packing,  and  the  water  percolated 
through  this  to  the  gutters  below. 
A  manhole  was  left  in  the  arch  at 
the  shaft,  5  ft.  in  diameter,  and  was 
built  up  the  shaft  to  the  solid  rock. 
The  space  around  this  manhole  to  the 
sides  of  the  shaft  was  filled  with  dry 
packing  of  good-sized  stone,  and,  upon 
reaching  solid  rock,  a  layer  of  about  12 
inches  of  broken  stone  was  placed  on 
top  of  the  dry  packing  ;  coarse  gravel 
was  put  on  top  of  this,  then  came 
gravel  and  cement,  and  then  three 
courses  of  brick  work,  the  top  course 
being  of  vitrified  paving  brick.  By  this 
time  the  water  was  falling  down  the  man- 
hole, the  weepers  in  the  tunnel  were 
dry,  and  no  damage  was  done  to  any  of 
the  masonry. 

The  shafts  above  were  built  up  by  a 
brick  arch  thrown  across  at  the  solid 
rock  nearest  below  the  surface,  and  a 
manhole,  directly 
over  the  bottom 
manhole,       was 
built  to  the  sur- 
face.     The   slate 
rock,   although 
apparently    solid 
when  first  opened 
up  in  the  head- 
ings,   fell   off   in 


208 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


large  slabs  when  exposed  to  the  air, 
and  necessitated  not  only  temporary 
timbering  and  props  in  the  advance 
heading,  but  permanent  timbering 
throughout. 

The  layer  of  limestone  under  the 
shale  was  a  firm  strong  rock,  and  in 
that  portion  of  the  tunnel  where  it 
formed  the  roof,  no  timbering  was  re- 
quired. The  sand  stone  and  sand  shale 
under  the  limestone  were  full  of  clay 
seams.  The  system  of  blasting  used  in 
the  heading  was  the  American,  or 
centre  cut  method,  the  location  of  drill 
holes  for  the  heading  and  benches  being 
shown  on  the  accompanying  cross  sec- 
tion and  profile. 

The    permanent    timber    arch    was 
formed  of  five  blocks  of  12  x  12- inch 
timbers,   covered  with   three-inch   lag- 
ging,  packed  over  with   dry  stone  to 
the  rock  roof.     The  first  heading  was 
excavated  to  the  bottom  of  the  longi- 
tudinal   timber   or   wall    plates.      The 
second    bench    followed   within   about 
fifty  feet  of  the  heading,   posts  being 
placed  under  the  wall  plates,  as  exca- 
vated.    The  heading  and  first  or  upper 
bench  were  carred  along  together  until 
the  headings  met.     The  lower  bench 
was  excavated  a  short  distance  ahead 
of  the  brick  lining.     In  some  cases,  on 
account  of  the  poor  rock,  it  was 
found    necessary    to    place   long 
posts  to  the  bottom  of  this  bench 
to  support  the  wall  plates. 

The  best  progress  made  in  any 
heading  during  the  construction 
of  the  tunnel  was  94  feet  in  one 
week.  The  best  progress  for  the 
five  headings  was  331  feet  in  one 
week,  an  average  of  over  66  feet 
to  each  heading,  and  the  same 
week  321  feet  of  the  first  bench 
were  taken  out  and  the  timbering 
was  carried  along.  The  brick 
work  was  built  in  the  different 
sections,  as  shown  on  the  profile 
and  plan. 

The  brick  side-walls  were  built 
first,  a  specially  formed  brick 
being  used  where  the  invert  or 
bottom  joined  on.  The  invert 
was  the  last  brick  work  to  be  laid 
in  the  tunnel.  For  setting  these 


DETAILS    OF   THE   NIAGARA    TUNNEL. 


209 


side-walls  a  templet  or  form  was  set  on 
correct  grade  and  line.  This  was  made, 
as  shown  in  the  section,  with  notches 
cut  for  the  special  brick  and  saw  cuts 
made  for  each  course  of  brick.  Above 
these  the  centres  were  set  which  were 


On  the  accuracy  of  alignment  and 
grade  depended  the  meeting  and  out- 
come of  all  the  different  steps  described 
above.  The  alignment  in  the  tunnel 
was  produced  from  two  small  steel 
piano  wires  suspended  from  the  surface 


PLAN  SHOWING  ARRANGEMENT  OP  TROUGH  AND  CANVAS. 


DEPTH  TO  FLOOR 
OF  DRIFT  42' 


SECTION   THROUGH   CENTRE   OF   DRIFTS. 
PLAN    ADOPTED    FOR    HANDLING    WATER    AT   SHAFT   NO.    2. 


especially  adapted  to  the  arrangement 
of  scaffolding  and  the  method  of  hand- 
ling material  used,  which  are  shown  on 
the  cross  and  longitudinal  sections. 
The  spaces  between  the  brick  work  and 
the  rock  and  around  the  posts  were  all 
filled  with  rubble  masonry  up  to  the 
haunch  of  the  arch.  Above  this  and 
over  the  brick  arch  dry  packing  was 
used. 


with  30  Ib.  flanged  plumb  bobs,  hang- 
ing in  buckets  filled  with  oil.  These 
wires  were  on  movable  screws  on  the 
surface,  and  were  kept  on  the  true  line 
with  a  transit  instrument  about  30  or  40 
feet  from  the  shaft.  The  distance  be- 
tween the  wires  was  about  17  feet. 
From  these  wires  at  the  bottom  a 
transit  instrument  was  sighted  and 
\vorked  on  to  the  true  line  and  points 


4-3 


2IO 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


set  in  the  tunnel.  This  was  repeated 
three  times,  or  until  the  result  proved 
satisfactory. 

The  elevations  were  established  at 
the  bottom  of  the  shafts  by  means  of  a 
long  accurately  tested  steel  tape,  kept 
on  a  known  elevation  on  the  surface  by 
means  of  a  level  instrument,  and  read 
at  the  bottom  by  another  level  from 
which  the  elevations  were  established 
on  bench  marks  of  iron  bolts,  secured 
in  the  rock.  This  was  also  done  three 
times,  or  until  a  satisfactory  result  was 
obtained.  The  result  of  the  alignment 
and  grade  of  the  tunnel  was  most  satis- 
factory, as  there  was  no  deviation  or 
error  in  all  the  construction,  and  no 
work  had  to  be  changed  or  torn  out. 
The  clearance  allowed  between  the  tim- 
bering and  brick  work  was  only  4 
inches,  the  smallest  in  any  tunnel. 


The  tunnel  shafts  were  started  late  in 
September,  1890.  The  tunnel  for  a 
length  of  6700  feet  was  entirely  com- 
pleted in  January,  1893,  and  the  final 
estimate  for  the  contract  of  the  main 
tunnel  was  made  in  March,  1893.  The 
material  excavated  from  the  tunnel  was 
used  to  fill  up  the  lands  under  water 
acquired  by  the  company,  a  small  rail- 
road being  built  from  shafts  Nos.  i  and 
2  for  that  purpose.  To-day  the  greater 
part  of  the  plant  of  the  Niagara  Falls 
Paper  Mill  stands  on  land  which  was 
then  mostly  all  under  the  water  of  the 
Niagara  River. 

During  the  summer  and  fall  of  1890, 
contour  surveys  of  the  lands  and  river 
adjoining  them  were  made,  and  from 
these  the  best  entrances  from  the  river, 
location  of  the  canal,  wheel-pits,  etc., 
were  determined  upon  by  the  engineers. 


or  THE 

ERSI 


GEORGE  BARKER  BURBANK  was  the  resi- 
dent consulting  engineer  of  the  Cataract 
Construction  Co.  during  the  period  covering 
probably  the  most  important  part  of  the 
work,  and  later  was  chief  engineer.  His 
article  here  embraces  the  first  official  state- 
ment ever  made  regarding  it. 


iii  r  bii  —  itf  ^  Ik  *—  LLy 


THE    NIAGARA   FALLS    POWER   COMPANY'S    STATION. 


THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    THE    NIAGARA    TUNNEL, 
WHEEL-PIT  AND  CANAL. 

By  George  B.  Burbank,  Mem.  Am.  Soc.  C  E. 


IN  the  latter  part  of  May,  1891,  the 
writer  was  called  upon  by  the 
Cataract  Construction  Company  to 
examine  and  report  as  to  the  necessity 
of  lining  the  main  tunnel  of  the  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Company  at  Niagara  Falls. 
At  that  time,  under  the  direction  of 
Resident  Engineer  Albert  H.  Porter, 
the  shafts  had  been  sunk  to  the  tunnel 
level,  and  headings  had  been  driven 
for  50  to  75  feet  from  the  shafts. 

In  these  headings  the  material  to  be 
encountered  while  driving  the  tunnel 
was  fully  developed.  An  argillaceous 
shale  was  found  which,  upon  exposure 
to  the  air,  crumbled  away,  necessitating 
prompt  support  with  timber  to  avoid 
serious  falls  from  the  roof.  After  an 
extended  examination  of  all  the  work- 
ings, it  became  clearly  evident  to  me 
that  lining  with  brick  throughout  was 
an  absolute  necessity,  and  that  timbering 


would  also  be  required  for  the  entire 
length  of  the  tunnel,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  a  distance  of  about  800  feet 
where  a  ledge  of  limestone,  eight  feet 
in  thickness,  could  be  utilized  for  the 
roof. 

My  report  was  rendered  in  accord- 
ance with  these  findings,  and  the  sub- 
sequent construction  fully  confirmed  the 
correctness  of  the  recommendations. 
After  making  this  report,  and  assisting 
in  the  remodeling  of  the  construction 
contracts,  I  was  invited  to  supervise  the 
work,  as  resident  consulting  engineer, 
and,  resigning  my  connection  with  the 
New  York  Aqueduct,  I  became  estab- 
lished in  that  capacity  at  Niagara  Falls 
early  in  the  month  of  June.  Upon  the 
completion  of  the  tunnel  to  the  6700- 
foot  station,  in  January,  1893,  I  became 
chief  engineer  of  the  work,  and  of  the 
companies  allied  to  the  Cataract  Con- 

213 


2I4 


CASSJE&'S  MAGAZINE. 


THE  NIAGARA    TUNNEL,    WHEEL-PIT  AND    CANAL.     21 5 


struction  Company,  and  continued  in 
that  capacity  until  the  completion  of  con- 
struction in  1894.  After  the  decision 
in  regard  to  lining  was  made,  the  tun- 
nel work  was  vigorously  prosecuted  by 
the  contractors,  until  its  completion, 
under  the  special  supervision  of  Resi- 
dent Engineer  Porter  and  Division 
Engineer  Mr.  William  S.  Humbert. 
The  tunnel  is  lined  throughout  with 


exclusively  for  mortar  in  laying  brick 
and  stone  masonry  in  the  tunnel  and 
wheel-pit.  The  composition  of  the 
mortar  generally  used  wae  one  part 
cement  to  three  parts  sand,  but  at  the 
shafts  and  the  wheel-pit,  where  the  flow 
of  water  was  very  strong,  the  propor- 
tion was  changed  to  one  to  two,  and  in 
some  cases  one  to  one.  This  bricking 
commenced  in  March,  1892,  and  fol- 


ONE  OF  THE  CANAL  INLETS  AT  AN  EARLY  STAGE. 


at  least  four  rings  of  the  best  hard-burned 
brick,  making  a  solid  brick  wall  sixteen 
inches  in  thickness.  At  points  where, 
from  the  nature  of  the  material  through 
which  the  tunnel  was  driven,  it  was 
thought  possible  that  greater  strength 
might  be  required,  the  thickness  was 
increased  to  six  and  even  eight 
rings. 

The  upper  or  face  ring  of  the  invert 
was  laid  with  the  best  quality  of  vitrified 
paving  brick.  All  spaces  between  the 
brick  work  and  sides  or  roof  of  the  tun- 
nel were  filled  with  rubble  masonry. 
American  Portland  cement  was  used 


lowed  the  work  of  excavating  as  closely 
as  was  consistent  with  safety. 

A  very  satisfactory  method  of  lining 
the  arch  was  adopted.  The  main  feature 
was  the  construction  of  a  platform  about 
ten  feet  above  the  invert  after  the  side 
walls  were  laid  to  as  high  a  point  as  was 
convenient  for  the  handling  of  brick  and 
mortar.  On  this  platform  tracks  were 
laid,  and  the  brick  and  mortar  were 
hauled  to  their  destination,  a  separate 
landing  being  made  in  the  shafts  at  the 
proper  elevation.  The  great  advantage 
of  this  system  consisted  in  enabling  the 
contractors  to  carry  on  the  work  of  ex- 


216 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


LOWERING   A   PENSTOCK   INTO     THE   WHEEL-PIT. 


cavating  and  of  lining1  at  the  same  time, 
without  the  possibility  that  the  outgoing 
cars,  loaded  with  material  excavated  in 
driving  the  tunnel,  could  interfere  with 
cars  coming  in,  loaded  with  brick  and 
mortar,  the  brick  work,  at  times,  being 
carried  on  within  less  than  100  feet  of 
the  face  of  bench  excavation  in  the 
tunnel. 

At  the  portal  it  was  decided  to  drop 
the  grade  of  the  invert  about  eleven 
feet  below  the  average  low  water  of  the 
river,  thus  permitting  fully  one-half  the 
flow  from  the  tunnel  to  discharge  below 
the  surface.  To  this  end,  the  grade  was 
changed  into  an  ogee  commencing  at  a 
point  90  feet  from  the  portal,  dropping 
nearly  eleven  feet  in  that  distance. 

This  portion  of  the  tunnel,  to  the  ele- 
vation of  the  spring  line,  was  lined  with 
steel  boiler  plate,  riveted  to  steel  ribs 
three  to  four  feet  in  depth,  which  were 
bedded  solidly  in  Portland  cement  con- 
crete, the  arch  being  turned  with  brick 
except  for  25  feet  at  the  portal,  where 
the  construction  was  granite  masonry. 
The  masonry  for  this  facade  was  carried 
solidly  to  a  depth  of  38  feet  below  the 


surface  of  water,  when  a  ledge  of 
white  sandstone  was  struck,  which  was 
entirely  satisfactory  for  a  foundation. 

The  first  contract  was  with  Messrs. 
Rodgers  &  Clement,  of  New  York  City, 
for  6700  feet  of  tunnel  with  two  main 
shafts  and  a  smaller  shaft  at  the  bluff 
near  the  portal.  This  contract  was  com- 
pleted in  January,  1893.  On  January 
5,  1892,  a  contract  was  made  with  A. 
C.  Douglas,  of  Niagara  Falls,  for  an 
extension  of  the  main  tunnel  300  feet 
further,  making  a  total  length  of  7000 
feet  in  main  tunnel  ;  for  a  tunnel  con- 
nection of  same  size  to  the  wheel-pit, 
and  for  the  wheel-pit,  and  for  a  short 
tunnel,  circular  in  shape  and  ten  feet  in 
diameter,  providing  for  a  possible  de- 
velopment of  lands  owned  by  the  com- 
pany on  the  north  side  of  the  tunnel. 

The  wheel-pit,  which  is  really  an 
elongated  shaft,  is  an  uncommon  feature 
in  construction,  particularly  in  its  magni- 
tude. The  dimensions  are  :  Length, 
140  feet ;  width,  18  feet ;  depth,  178 
feet.  This  pit  is  lined  on  the  bottom 
with  1 6  inches  of  brick,  the  top  course 
being  of  best  quality  paving  brick,  and 


THE   NIAGARA    TUNNEL,   WHEEL-PIT  AND    CANAL.     217 


on  the  sides,  to  the  height  of  30  feet 
above  the  invert,  with  from  two  to  two 
and  a  half  feet  of  solid  brick  masonry. 
This  wall  is  capped  with  a  single  course 
of  limestone,  two  and  one-half  feet  in 
thickness,  on  which  the  girders,  weigh- 
ing about  twenty-five  tons,  are,  placed. 
These  carry  the  weight  of  the  penstocks 
and  turbines,  of  5000  horse-power  each. 
It  is  intended  ultimately  to  extend  this 
wheel-pit  to  a  length  of  about  400  feet. 
The  masonry  construction  of  special 
interest  is  at  the  connections  between 


the  main  tunnel  and  the  side  tunnels, 
and  at  the  portal  or  place  of  discharge 
into  the  lower  river.  First  in  importance 
is  the  connection  between  two  horseshoe 
arches,  each  21  feet  high  and  18  feet  10 
inches  wide  at  the  spring  line,  at  an 
angle  of  60  degrees  ;  and  second,  the 
connection  between  a  circular  arch  10 
feet  in  diameter  and  the  horseshoe  arch, 
also  at  an  angle  of  60  degrees.  All  de- 
signs and  details  for  the  connections 
were  prepared  by  Mr.  George  F.  Simp- 
son, the  chief  draughtsman  in  this  de- 


THE   MOUTH   OF  THE  TUNNEL  DURING  CONSTRUCTION. 


218 


GASSIER' S  MAGAZINE. 


partment  of  the  work.  The  Brandy- 
wine  Granite  Company,  of  Wilming- 
ton, Del.,  furnished  all  granite  in  this 
construction,  cut  into  shape  and  to 
the  dimensions  required.  The  arches 
for  the  connection  with  the  tunnel  were 
laid  by  the  contractor  under  the  direct 
supervision  of  Mr.  J.  G.  Tait,  assistant 
engineer,  who  found  all  preparatory 
work  so  accurately  done  that  practically 
no  difficulties  were  encountered,  except 
such  mechanical  ones  as  would  naturally 


with  two  lines  of  crib-work  filled  with 
stone,  the  outer  one  12  feet  in  width," 
the  inner  one  10  feet  in  width,  with  an 
intervening  space  of  8  feet,  which  was 
carefully  lined  on  each  side  with  sheet 
piling.  After  the  piling  was  completed, 
the  loose  and  sandy  material  was  re- 
moved to  a  hard  clay  bottom  by  the  use 
of  a  centrifugal  pump,  and  the  space 
was  then  filled  with  clay  which  was 
dumped  into  the  water  and  worked  as 
much  as  possible.  This'  dam  was  prac- 


A   PROGRESS   VIEW   OF   THE   CANAL. 


be  expected  in  constructing  arches  of 
that  massive  character  in  tunnels,  allow- 
ing an  average  clearance  not  exceeding 
one  foot. 

In  August,  1891,  work  had  been 
commenced,  with  a  company  force  under 
the  direct  management  of  myself,  on  the 
main  and  inlet  canals.  The  mouth  of 
the  canal  is  600  feet  from  the  shore  line, 
necessitating  the  construction  of  em- 
bankments on  each  side  for  that  distance 
into  the  river.  After  these  embank- 
ments had  been  extended  to  the  proper 
places,  a  coffer  dam,  450  feet  in  length, 
was  thrown  across  the  mouth  and  con- 
nected with  the  ends  of  these  embank- 
ments. This  coffer  dam  was  constructed 


tically  water-tight  and  remained  in  per- 
fect condition  until  removed  in  the 
spring  of  1894.  One  leak,  which  gave 
trouble  for  several  hours,  was  due  to  an 
imperfect  connection  with  the  side  dump 
from  the  shore  at  the  east  end  of  the 
dam.  No  delay  in  the  work  of  excavation 
or  of  laying  masonry  was,  however,  ex- 
perienced from  this  cause. 

The  side  walls  of  the  canal  are  of  solid 
masonry,  17  feet  high,  3  feet  thick  at 
the  top  and  about  8  feet  at  base. 
This  work  was  laid  in  ordinary  American 
cement  mortar,  composed  of  one  part 
of  cement  and  two  parts  of  sand.  The 
excavation  and  masonry  were  carried 
on  simultaneously,  and  the  canal  was 


THE  NIAGARA    TUNNEL,    WHEEL-PIT  AND    CANAL.    219 


ANOTHER   KARLY  VIEW   OF  THE   TUNNEL'S   MOUTH. 


22O 


CASSIER'S    MAGAZINE. 


THE  NIAGARA    TUNNEL,    WHEEL-PIT  AND   CANAL.     221 


222 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


completed  in  October,  1892.  The  canal 
carries  twelve  feet  depth  of  water  at  the 
ordinary  low  stage  of  the  river. 

During  the  year  1892-93,  the  Niagara 
Junction    Railway     was     constructed, 


its  rails  are  laid,  making  connection 
with  the  traffic  of  the  Great  Lakes.  By 
this  railway,  materials  and  freights  are 
received  from,  and  delivered  to,  all  the 
manufacturing  sites  which  this  develop- 


GETTING   READY  FOR   THE   TURBINES. 


which  runs  through  the  entire  length  of 
the  property  owned  by  the  various  cor- 
porations allied  in  interest.  This  rail- 
way connects  with  all  the  trunk  lines, 
and  extensive  docks  have  been  con- 
structed on  the  Niagara  River,  on  which 


ment  opens  to  the  public.  During  the 
same  time  a  new  water- works  plant  was 
established  with  a  capacity  of  6, 000,000 
gallons  per  day,  the  water  being  taken 
from  the  Niagara  River  one  mile  above 
the  falls. 


THE  NIAGARA    TUNNEL,    WHEEL-PIT  AND    CANAL,     223 


A   LATERAL  TUNNEL  JUNCTION. 


224 


CASSS£X'S   MAGAZINE. 


Accommodations  have  also  been  pro- 
vided for  operatives,  by  the  erection  of 
50  handsome  and  convenient  cottages, 
with  fine  macadam  streets,  a  complete 
system  of  drainage  and  sewerage,  with 
disposal  works  and  unlimited  water  sup- 
ply. Of  this  work,  as  well  as  of  the 
water-works  and  railway  construction, 
Division  Engineer  Mr.  William  A. 
Brackenridge  was  in  special  charge. 

A  handsome  power  house  has  been 
completed  over  the  wheel-pit,  after  de- 
signs by  Messrs.  McKim,  Mead  & 
White,  of  New  York  City,  the  contrac- 
tors being  Messrs.  James  Stewart  &  Co. , 
of  St.  Louis  and  Buffalo.  The  outer  sur- 
face is  of  limestone,  and  the  inner,  for  a 


height  of  six  feet  from  the  floor,  is  of  en: 
ameled  brick,  and  above  that  of  ordi- 
nary brick,  coated  with  white  enamel 
paint.  In  this  building,  which  is  200  feet 
in  length,  a  5o-ton  traveling  crane  trans- 
ferred the  machinery  for  the  turbines 
from  the  cars  to  their  location  in  the 
wheel-pit.  The  greatest  number  of  men 
employed  at  any  one  time  was  about 
2500.  In  the  construction  600,000 
tons  of  material  were  removed,  and 
there  were  used  16,000,000  bricks, 
19,000,000  feet  of  timber  and  lumber, 
60,000  cubic  yards  of  stone,  55,000 
barrels  of  Giant  American  Portland 
cement,  12,000  barrels  of  natural  ce- 
ment and  26,000  cubic  yards  of  sand. 


CLEMENS  HERSCHEL  was  consulting  hy- 
draulic engineer  of  the  Cataract  Construction 
Company  during  the  period  of  construction. 


NIAGARA    MILL    SITES,  WATER    CONNECTIONS  AND 

TURBINES. 

By  Clemens  Herschel,  Hydraulic  Engineer. 


ONE  of  the  present  series  of  articles 
must  evidently  treat  of  the 
power  producing  plant,  and  its 
installation, — two  essential  elements  in 
the  series  of  mechanisms  that  convert 
the  flow  of  the  Niagara  river  over  the 
Falls,  into  other  forms  of  energy, — 
finally  represented  by  a  revolving  shaft 
in  the  factory,  by  the  speeding  car  in 
the  street,  or  by  other  of  its  manifold 
forms  of  utility.  It  is  this  part  of  the 
description  of  the  manner  of  utilizing 
Niagara  Falls  that  is  to  fall  to  the  lot  of 
the  present  article. 

The  standard  American  method  of 
utilizing  a  large  amount  of  water-power, 
has  hitherto  been,  to  distribute  the 
water  to  the  several  consumers,  or  mill- 
owners,  by  means  of  a  system  of  head- 
races, so-called,  with  facilities  for  its 
discharge  at  a  lower  level,  to  be  utilized 
as  the  owner  or  lessee  saw  fit,  and  gen- 
erally on  his  own  premises.  This  led 
to  long  head-canals,  and  to  insignificant 
tail-races,  whereas,  as  we  shall  presently 
see,  the  Niagara  plant  consists  of  a 
common  tail-race,  a  mile  and  a  half 
long,  with  comparatively  insignificant 
head-races.  The  old-time  water-power 
company  sold  or  leased  the  right  to  draw 


I 


228 


CASSIER'S   MAGAZINE. 


NIAGARA    MILL   SITES  AND    TURBINES. 


229 


a  definite  quantity  of  water,  at  defined 
times,  with  the  privilege  of  discharging 
it  at  a  lower  level,  and  the  mill-owner 
did  the  rest;  whereas,  at  Niagara  Falls, 
the  right  is  leased  to  discharge  a  defi- 
nite quantity  of  water  into  the  tail-race 
tunnel,  with  the  privilege  of  drawing 
this  quantity  from  the  head-canal,  or 
from  the  river.  But  over  and  above 
this  the  product, — power, — may  be 
contracted  for  at  Niagara  Falls,  de- 
livered on  the  shaft. 

To  create  a  large  group  of  mill-sites 
of  the  older  sort,  there  was  necessary, 
in  the  first  instance,  a  large  continuous 
body  of  land,  properly  located  for  the 
purpose.  If  this  could  not  be  bought 
up  secretly,  and  in  large  blocks,  the 
whole  water-power  enterprise  would 
fail  to  come  to  fruition.  In  Europe, 
however,  several  such  enterprises  came 
into  being  in  spite  of  the  inability  of 
the  projectors  to  primarily  buy  tracts 
of  land  such  as  have  been  described. 
This  was  done  by  establishing  central 
power  stations  near  the  dam,  or  head 
canal,  and  then  transmitting  the  power 
produced,  instead  of  the  water  to  pro- 
duce it,  to  the  consumers,  or  mill-own- 
ers. Up  to  within  say  five  years,  this 
had  always  been  accomplished  by 
means  of  wire-rope  transmissions  of 
power,  and  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  in- 
vention of  the  electrical  transmission  of 
power  would  give  this  form  of  the 
utilization  of  a  large  water-power  a 
great  impetus.  Many  such  plants  are, 
therefore,  already  in  existence,  many 
are  building,  but  among  them  all,  no 
one  is  probably  so  celebrated,  and  is  at- 
tracting the  attention  of  all  intelligent 
men  as  this  at  Niagara  Falls. 

The  work  at  Niagara  Falls  is  designed 
to  be  utilized  in  both  of  the  methods 
above  described,  and  examples  of  both 
methods  of  distributing  power  are  built. 
The  plant  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Paper 
Company  is  an  example  of  the  first  and 
older  method  of  power  utilization,  while 
the  Central  Power  Station  of  the  Ni- 
agara Falls  Power  Company  is  the 
grandest  example  yet  undertaken  of  the 
second  described,  and  the  later  method 
of  power  distribution.  The  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Company  also  owns  some 


1 200  acres  of  land  adjoining  the  Cen- 
tral Power  Station  and  the  present  head 
canal,  all  of  which  can  be  utilized  for 
the  sites  of  manufacturing  establish- 
ments by  one  or  the  other  of  the  meth- 
ods described.  This  has  been  laid  out 
in  streets  and  blocks,  with  a  freight  rail- 
road, to  be  spoken  of  presently,  con- 
necting the  mill  sites  with  all  the 
trunk  lines  that  pass  Niagara  Falls,  and 
adjoins  the  residential  district  being 
developed  by  the  Niagara  Develop- 
ment Company,  whose  first  fruits  are 
the  village  called  Echota,  and  the  ad- 
joining wharf  and  other  property.  But 
over  and  beyond  all  this,  a  transmission 
of  power  to  Buffalo,  only  20  miles  off, 
and  possibly  still  further,  is  within  the 
scope  and  design  of  the  Central  Power 
Station  now  building. 

It  is  interesting  to  find  how  the  work 
of  to-day  was  dreamt  of  in  1876.  In 
that  year  the  late  Sir  William  Siemens 
came  to  America  to  see  the  Centennial 
exhibition.  Proceeding  to  Niagara 
Falls,  he  was  struck  with  its  capabilities 
as  a  power-producing  centre,  and  car- 
ried out  what  was  probably  the  first 
computation  ever  made  of  the  cost  of 
distributing  power  from  Niagara  Falls 
to  the  country  around  it  by  electricity. 
In  the  "  Life  of  Sir  William  Siemens,'' 
by  William  Pole,  this  subject  is  treated 
at  length,  and  the  following  quotation 
from  it  may  be  interesting  in  this  place: 

' '  When  such  a  machine  as  a  dynamo 
was  once  brought  into  existence,  it  was 
sure  to  be  taken  advantage  of  for  other 
applications  of  powerful  electric  energy. 
*  *  *  It  is  necessary  here  to  allude 
to  one  remarkable  case  which  was 
among  the  earliest  to  which  Dr.  Sie- 
mens gave  his  attention.  In  this  the 
electric  current  is  used,  not  for  action  of 
its  own,  but  merely  as  a  vehicle  for  the 
transmission  of  power ;  just  as  a  boat 
on  a  river,  or  a  wagon  on  a  railway  is 
used  to  transport  some  valuable  com- 
modity for  use  at  a  distant  place.  The 
power  of  horses,  or  of  a  water-fall,  or 
of  a  steam  engine,  is  applied  in  a  dy- 
namo to  excite  a  current ;  that  current 
is  passed  along  a  wire,  and  will,  by  the 
aid  of  another  dynamo  at  the  other  end 
of  the  wire,  reproduce  the  power  (or  a 


230 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


NIAGARA   MILL    SITES  AND    TURBINES. 


231 


portion  of  it)  in  a  far  distant  locality. 
"  This  use  of  electricity  formed  a 
favorite  study  for  Dr.  Siemens,  and  it 
seems  to  have  first  strongly  impressed 
itself  on  his  mind  when,  in  the  autumn 
of  1876,  he  went  to  America  and  visited 
Niagara  Falls.  In  all  his  many  jour- 
neys in  different  countries  nothing  made 
such  a  deep  impression  on  him  as  this 


energy.  And  he  at  once  began  to 
speculate  whether  it  was  absolutely  nec- 
essary that  the  whole  of  this  glorious 
magnitude  of  power  should  be  wasted 
in  dashing  itself  into  the  chasm  below — 
whether  it  was  not  possible  that  at  least 
some  might  be  practically  utilized  for 
the  benefit  of  mankind  ? 

<(  He  had  not  long  to  think  before  a 


IN  THE  MAIN  TUNNEL. 


wonderful  natural  phenomenon.  The 
stupendous  rush  of  waters  filled  him 
with  fear  and  admiration,  as  it  does 
every  one  who  comes  within  the  sound 
of  its  mighty  roar.  But  he  saw  in  it 
something  far  beyond  what  was  obvious 
to  the  multitude,  for  his  scientific  mind 
could  not  help  viewing  it  as  an  inex- 
pressible manifestation  of  mechanical 


possible  means  of  doing  this  presented 
itself  to  him.  The  dynamo  machine 
had  just  then  been  brought  to  perfec- 
tion, partly  by  his  own  labors  ;  and  he 
asked  himself,  why  should  not  this 
colossal  power  actuate  a  colossal  series 
of  dynamos,  whose  conducting  wires 
might  transmit  its  activity  to  places 
miles  away?  This  great  idea,  formed 


232 


GASSIER  'S  MAGAZINE. 


amid  the  thunderings  of  the  cataract, 
accompanied  him  all  the  way  home,  and 
was  meditated  on  in  the  quiet  of  his 
study.  He  submitted  it  to  the  test  of 
mathematical  calculation,  and  so  far 
convinced  himself  of  its  reasonable  na- 
ture, that  he  determined,  when  a  fitting 
occasion  arrived,  to  make  it  known. 

' '  The  opportunity  arrived  in  the 
spring  of  1877,  when  he  had  to  give  an 
opening  address  as  president  of  the 
Iron  and  Steel  Institute.  In  that  ad- 
dress he  had  to  point  out  the  dependence 
of  the  iron  and  steel  manufacture  on 
coal  as  a  fuel.  He  alluded  to  the  grad- 
ual diminution  of  the  stores  in  the  earth 
of  this  valuable  commodity,  owing  to 
the  vast  consumption  of  it  for  steam- 
power,  and  he  urged  that  other  natural 


THE  GENERAL  POWER  PLAN. 


sources  of  force,  such  as  water  and 
wind,  ought  to  be  made  more  use  of. 
And  speaking  of  water-power,  he  made 
the  following  remarks  : 

'  The  advantage  of  utilizing  water- 
power  applies,  however,  chiefly  to  Con- 
tinental countries,  with  large  elevated 
plateaus,  such  as  Sweden  and  the 
United  States  of  America,  and  it  is  in- 
teresting to  contemplate  the  magnitude 
of  power  which  is  now  for  the  most 
part  lost,  but  which  may  be,  sooner  or 
later,  called  into  requisition.  Take 
the  Falls  of  Niagara  as  a  familiar  ex- 
ample. The  amount  of  water  passing 
ov  r  this  fall  has  been  estimated  at 
100,000,000  of  tons  per  hour,  and  its 
perpendicular  descent  may  be  taken  at 
150  feet,  without  counting  the  rapids, 
which  represent  a  further  fall  of  150 
feet,  making  a  total  of  300  feet  between 


lake  and  lake.  But  the  force  repre- 
sented by  the  principal  fall  alone  amounts 
to  16,800,000  horse-power,*  an  amount 
which,  if  it  had  to  be  produced  by 
steam,  would  necessitate  an  expenditure 
of  not  less  than  266,000,000  tons  of 
coal  per  annum,  taking  the  consump- 
tion of  coal  at  4  pounds  per  horse- 
power per  hour.  In  other  words,  all 
the  coal  raised  throughout  the  world 
would  barely  suffice  to  produce  the' 
amount  of  power  that  continually  runs 
to  waste  at  this  one  great  fall. 

"  '  It  would  not  be  difficult,  indeed,  to 
realize  a  large  portion  of  the  power  so 
wasted,  by  means  of  turbines  and  water- 
wheels  erected  on  the  shores  of  the  deep 
river  below  the  falls,   supplying  them 
from  races  out  along  the  edges.      But 
it    would   be    impossible    to 
utilize  the  power  on  the  spot, 
the  district  being  devoid  of 
mineral  wealth,  or  other  nat- 
ural    inducements     for    the 
establishment  of  factories.  In 
order  to  render  available  the 
force  of  falling  water  at  this 
and  hundreds  of  other  places 
similarly  situated,    we   must 
devise  a  practicable  means  of 
transporting  the  power.     Sir 
William    Armstrong    has 
taught  us  how  to  carry  and 
utilize  water  at  a  distance,  if 
conveyed  through  high-pressure  mains, 
and  compressed  air  has  been  employed 
for  the  same  purpose.    At  Schaff hausen, 
in  Switzerland,  as  well  as  at  some  other 
places  on  the  Continent,  power  is  con- 
veyed by  means  of  quick-working  steel 
ropes    passing  over  large  pulleys  ;  by 
these  means  it  may  be  carried  to  a  dis- 
tance of  one  or  two  miles  without  diffi- 
culty. 

' (  '  As  regards  electrical  transmission, 
suppose  water-power  be  employed  to 
give  motion  to  a  dynamo-electrical  ma- 
chine, a  very  powerful  electrical  current 
will  be  the  result,  which  may  be  carried 
to  a  great  distance,  through  a  large  me- 


*  The  gaugings  of  the  United  States  government 
engineers  give  an  average  discharge  of  about  275,000 
cubic  feet  per  second,  which,  with  a  fall  of  216  feet, 
— the  difference  of  elevation  between  the  water  above 
the  rapids  and  that  of  the  lower  river — gives  a  total 
of  6,750,000  theoretical  H.-P. — THE  EDITOR. 


NIAGARA   MILL   SITES  AND    TURBINES. 


233 


234 


GASSIER' S  MAGAZINE. 


SECTION    OF   WHEEL    AND    GOVERNOR    DESIGNED    BY   ESCHER,    WYSS   &   CO. 


NIAGARA    MILL   SITES  AND    TURBINES. 


235 


tallic  conductor,  and  then  be  made  to 
impart  motion  to  electro-magnetic  en- 
gines, to  ignite  the  carbon  points  of  elec- 
tric lamps,  or  to  effect  the  separation 
of  metals  from  their  combinations.  A 
copper  rod,  three  inches  in  diameter, 
would  be  capable  of  transmitting  1000 
horse-power  a  distance  of,  say,  thirty 
miles,  an  amount  sufficient  to  supply 
one-quarter  of  a  million  candle-power, 
which  would  suffice  to  illuminate  a 
moderately  sized  town.'  This  state- 
ment startled  the  audience  considerably  ; 


and  other  such  bridges  are  already 
talked  of.  Railroad  freight  rates  are  in 
competition  with  each  other,  and  with 
lake  and  canal  rates,  and  are  to-day  no 
greater  from  Niagara  Falls  to  New  York 
and  to  Boston,  than  they  are  from  the 
established  manufacturing  centres  of  the 
East  to  these  cities,  while  they  are,  on 
the  other  hand,  very  materially  less 
from  Niagara  Falls  to  the  great  cities  of 
the  West,  Southwest  and  South  than 
they  are  from  these  same  older  manu- 
facturing centres.  The  present  favor- 


SECTION"  AND   PLAX  OF   ESCHER,   WYSS  &  CO.'S  WHEEL. 


and  it  is  still  remembered  that,  when  it 
was  delivered,  a  smile  of  incredulity  was 
observed  to  play  over  the  features  of 
many  of  his  hearers." 

One  of  the  neatest  and  most  valuable 
attributes  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power 
Company's  mill  sites  is  the  road  of  the 
Niagara  Junction  Railway  Company. 
Niagara  Falls  is  already,  or  is  destined 
to  be,  one  of  the  great  railroad  centres 
of  the  United  States.  Two  railroad 
bridges  cross  the  river  there,  each  used 
by  several  East  and  West  trunk  lines, 


able  conditions  will  bring  more  manu- 
facturing into  the  Buffalo  and  Niagara 
Falls  district,  and,  as  such  things  always 
operate,  will  also  bring  in  still  other 
trunk  lines  of  railroad. 

It  is  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  the 
occupant  of  any  mill-site  of  the  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Company  to  receive  cars 
shipped  to  him  by  any  line  of  railroad 
entering  the  Buffalo- Niagara  Falls  dis- 
trict, and  of  delivering  cars  directly  to 
any  such  railroad,  that  the  Niagara 
Junction  Railway  Company  was  organ- 


236 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


NIAGARA    MILL   SITES  AND    TURBINES. 


237 


238 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


ized  and  the  road  built.  It  is  an  allied 
enterprise  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power 
Company  and  will  do  no  little  in  further- 
ing the  growth  and  business  of  the  new 
city,  benefiting,  in  turn,  all  the  trunk 
lines  that  do  now  or  will,  eventually, 
traverse  the  Niagara  Falls  neck  of  land 
between  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Ontario. 
Lake  transportation,  and  transportation 
on  the  Erie  Canal  are,  however,  also 
available  to  the  occupants  of  these  mill- 
sites.  Many  of  them  front  directly  on 
the  Niagara  river,  where  it  is  naviga- 
ble, and  none  of  them  are  any  great 
distance  from  it. 

It  will  not  be  necessary  to  say  much 
more  on  the  subject  of  water  connec- 
tions at  the  Niagara  mill-sites.  The 
Niagara  Falls  Paper  Company  has  a 
square  wheel-pit,  which  is  connected 
with  the  main  tunnel  tail-race  by  a 
branch  tail-race,  7  feet  in  diameter.  All 
dimensions  of  underground  work  are 


HALF    SECTIONAL   PLAN    OF     WHEEL    DESIGNED    BY 
FAESCH   &   PICCARD. 


GENERAL     ELEVATION    OF     FAESCH    &    PICCARD 
DESIGN. 


kept  as  small  as  possible  at  Niagara 
Falls,  to  economize  rock  excavation,  as, 
for  example,  the  branch  tail-race  just 
mentioned.  Fall  being  a  commodity  of 
less  than  the  usual  value  on  these  mill- 
sites,  it  is  economy  to  spend  some  of  it 
toward  reducing  cross  sections.  This 
produces  high  velocities,  but  the  tail- 
races  are  built  of  first-class  materials. 


NIAGARA    MILL   SITES  AND    TURBINES. 


239 


RIVETING   UP   THE   PENSTOCK   OF   THE   NIAGARA   FALLS   PAPER   COMPANY'S    PLANT. 


240 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


. 


NIAGARA   MILL   SITES  AND    TURBINES. 


241 


and  are  set  in  a  rock  exca- 
vation. The  water  used 
carries  no  sand,  and  experi- 
ence has  already  shown 
that  the  tailraces  line  them- 
selves with  a  layer  of  slime 
in  spite  of  the  great  velocity 
in  them.  So  long  as  this 
slime  adheres  to  the  brick 
and  to  the  cement  joints, 
there  can  evidently  be  no 
wear  of  the  brick  masonry 
lining. 

The  wheel-pit  of  the  Nia- 
gara Falls  Power  Company 
is  a  long  slot  cut  in  the  rock, 
instead  of  a  group  of  small 
wheel-pits,  and  to  save  ex- 
cavation, though  at  the  cost 
of  some  fall  wasted,  the 
wheels  are  set  on  plate- 
girder  bridges  spanning  the 
slot,  and  so  as  to  leave  a 
tail-race  beneath  the  plate 
girders.  This  tailrace,  or 
bottom  of  the  slot,  is  con- 
nected by  a  short  curve  with 
the  main  tail-race  tunnel. 

The  fashionable  turbine 
of  the  present  day,  in  the 
United  States,  is,  no  doubt, 
the  twin  turbine,  with  hori- 
zontal axis,  this  axis  pro- 
jecting from  the  wheel  case, 
at  one  or  both  ends,  and 
either  driving  its  attached 
machine  directly,  or  carry- 
ing a  pulley,  to  belt  from. 
Several  attempts  were  made 
to  fit  this  general  form  of 
motive  power  for  the  case 
in  hand.  These  all  failed 
from  the  great  space  re- 
quired for  the  belts  or  drive- 
ropes,  which,  in  this  case, 
would  have  had  to  be 
gained  at  the  price  of  a 
material  increase  in  the 
amount  of  rock  excavation. 
Not  to  transmit  the  power 
to  the  surface  of  the  ground 
and  to  attach  the  machinery 
underground,  brings  with  it 
the  necessity  of  excavated 
chambers  140  feet  below 

6-3 


THE  MOUTH   OF   THE  TUNNEL. 


242 


MAGAZINE. 


ONE   OF   THE  NIAGARA   POWER  COMPANY'S  5OOO   HORSE-POWER  TURBINES   DESIGNED   BY   FAESCH  &  PICCARD, 
GENEVA,   SWITZERLAND.      BUILT   BY  THE  I.   P.   MORRIS   CO.,   PHILADELPHIA,  PA.,  U.  S.  A 


the  surface,  liable  to  be  damp,  or  wet, 
and  requiring  constant  artificial  light ; 
in  short,  forming  a  likewise  undesir- 
able arrangement.  These  considera- 
tions led,  therefore,  in  the  case  of  the 
Central  Power  Station  of  the  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Company,  to  wheels  with 
vertical  shafts,  and,  as  has  been  de- 
scribed, to  rows  of  such  wheels,  set  in 
a  continuous  slot,  directly  over  the 
appurtenant  tail-race  ;  and  to  a  group 
of  such  wheels,  set  in  a  square  pit,  for 
the  Niagara  Falls  Paper  Company. 

Considerations  of  economy  in  regard 
to  rock  excavation  per  horse-power  de- 
veloped, led  to  large  quantities  of  power 
per  wheel;  actually,  to  some  noo 
horse-power  per  wheel  in  the  case  of  the 
Paper  Company,  and  to  5000  horse- 
power per  wheel  in  the  case  of  the  Cen- 
tral Power  Station.  The  very  idea  of  a 
central  power  station  serves,  by  the 
way,  to  meet  considerations  of  economy 
in  rock  excavation,  by  avoiding  the  ne- 


cessity of  constructing  wheel-pits  to 
supply  only  small  powers.  When  such 
small  blocks  of  power  are  wanted,  they 
will  be  furnished  as  parts  of  a  larger 
plant,  by  transmitted  power,  as  it  would 
not  pay  to  sink  a  wheel-pit  for  them 
alone.  We  may  say,  in  round  figures, 
that  blocks  of  between  500  and  1000 
horse-power  will  probably,  and  of  less 
than  500  horse-power  will  certainly,  be 
furnished  on  these  mill-sites  by  trans- 
mitted power,  and  the  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Company  is  preparing  to  trans- 
mit and  distribute  such  power  by  elec- 
tricity. 

Given,  then,  turbines  with  vertical 
shafts  of  5000  horse-power,  on  about 
140  feet  of  fall,  and  a  prescribed  num- 
ber of  revolutions  per  minute,  it  follows 
that  American  wheel  builders  are  not 
accustomed,  or  their  shops  not  fitted, 
to  supply  such  wheels.  The  turbine 
wheel  business  in  the  United  States, is, 
in  point  of  fact,  carried  on  in  a  way 


NIAGARA    MILL    SITES  AND    TURBINES. 


243 


entirely  different  from  the  way  the 
same  business  is  carried  on  in  Europe. 
While  wheels  built  to  order  are  the 
exception  in  this  country,  they  are  all 
but  the  invariable  rule  in  Europe  ;  and, 
while  American  builders  have,  ordinar- 
ily, stocks  of  wheels  on  hand  and  turn 
them  out  as  they  would  shelf-hardware, 
wheels  built  in  that  way  in  Europe 
would  there  prove  entirely  unsal- 
able. American  wheels  are 
mostly  of  a  complex  nature,  as 
regards  the  action  of  the  water 
on  the  buckets  of  the  wheels, 
and  have  been  perfected  in 
efficiency  by  test,  or,  as  it  has 
irreverently  been  called,  by  the 
"cut  and  try"  method  of  pro- 
cedure. A  wheel  would  be  built 
on  the  inspiration  of  the  inventor, 
then  tested  in  a  testing  flume, 
changed  in  a  certain  part,  and 
retested  until  no  further  change 
in  that  particular  could  effect  an 
improvement;  another  part  would 
then  undergo  the  same  process 
of  reaching  perfection,  and  thus, 
in  course  of  time,  the  whole 
wheel  would  be  brought  up  to 
the  desired  high  standard  of 
efficiency. 

European  wheels,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  mostly  of  the  standard 
simple    action  kinds,    and   have 
been  perfected  mainly  by  learned 
computations  of  forms  of  guides 
and  buckets.       Most   American 
builders  also  shun  high  falls,  and 
in  their  work,  turned  out  in  quan- 
tity, aim  to  suit  only  the  ordinary 
heights  of  fall.     The  one  special 
high  fall  wheel  built  in  the  United 
States,    the    Pelton    wheel,    has 
a  horizontal    axis.      To    use   it 
on  a  vertical  axis,  and  with  the 
multiplicity  of  nozzles    required 
for  producing  5000  horse- power 
at   Niagara,     would    constitute   practi- 
cally   a  new  wheel.     Swiss  and  other 
European   wheel   builders  were,  there- 
fore,    early    in  the    field   with  designs 
for  producing  5000  horse-power  under 
a   140-foot    fall,    and    having  any  de- 
sired number  of  revolutions  per  min- 
ute, which  with  their  constant  practice 


in  building  wheels  to  order,  was,  to 
them,  only  a  case  to  be  met,  like  most 
any  other.  The  European  designs  all 
appreciated  the  difficulty  of  construct- 
ing a  step,  or  bearings,  that  would  sus- 
tain the  great  weight  of  a  column  of 
water  140  feet  high,  added  to  the 
weight  of  the  shaft  itself,  and  even  of 


SECTION   OF   THE   TURBINE. 


the  armature  of  a  dynamo  set  on  top  of 
the  shaft.  To  meet  this  requirement 
of  construction  some  designed  oil  or 
water  bearings  along  the  line  of  the 
shafts ;  some  designed  hollow  shafts, 
with  an  oil  bearing  on  top  of  a  column, 
ending  near  the  top  of  the  wheel, — the 
so-called  Fontaine  step  ;  others  de- 


244 


CASS/EK'S  MAGAZINE. 


VERTICAL  SECTION  THROUGH   LOWER  WHEEL. 


ONE  OF  THE   SHAFT   BEARINGS. 


NIAGARA   MILL   SITES  AND    TURBINES. 


245 


signed  a  water  piston  bearing  ;  others 
hit  upon  the  idea  of  having  twin  wheels 
set,  the  one  larger  in  diameter  and 
vertically  over  the  other,  and  thus 
neutralizing  the  weight  of  the  column 
of  water  acting  on  the  wheels  ;  and, 


be  either  of  the  Fourneyron,  in  America 
often  called  Boyden,  type,  or  else 
Jonval  wheels.  The  noo  horse-power 
turbines  ordered  by  the  Niagara  Falls 
Paper  Company  are  of  the  Jonval  type, 
designed  and  built  by  R.  D.  Wood  <£ 


ONE   OF  THK   TURBINE   CASTINGS. 


finally,  we  have  also  a  combination  of 
certain   of  these   methods   of  bearing, 
safely,  the  great  weight  on  the  revolv- 
ing parts  that  support  the  wheel  and 
the  weights  upon  the  shaft. 

The  wheels  themselves,  it  is   agreed 
among  European  turbine  builders,  must 


Co.,  of  Philadelphia,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  veteran  Jonval  wheel  builder 
in  the  United  States,  Mr.  E.  Geyelin, 
and  are  very  much  like  the  Jonval 
wheels  described  below  as  submitted 
to  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company 
by  Escher,  Wyss  &  Co.,  of  Zurich, 


246 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


GENERAL    ELEVATION.      FAESCH    &   PICCARD   DESIGN. 


Switzerland,  but  omitting  the  upper  of 
the  twin  wheels. 

The  three  wheels  now  set  and  com- 
pleted for  the  Niagara  Falls  Power 
Company  were  designed  by  Faesch  & 
Piccard,  of  Geneva,  Switzerland,  and 
were  built  under  contract  with  the  I. 
P.  Morris  Company  of  Philadelphia. 
They  consist  of  two  Fourneyron  tur- 
bines, one  being  set  inverted  and  ver- 


tically over  the  other,  so  as  to  neutral- 
ize weight  on  the  step  or  bearing. 
Each  of  these  twin  wheels  is,  moreover, 
made  three  stories  high  or  deep,  and 
the  speed-gate  consists  of  a  cylindrical 
rim,  moving  up  and  down  on  the  out- 
side of  each  wheel.  To  further  neutral- 
ize weight  on  the  upper  bearing  of  the 
shaft,  the  .water  from  the  penstock  is 
allowed  to  pass  through  the  disc  of  the 


NIAGARA   MILL    SITES  AND    TURBINES. 


247 


upper  guide-wheels,  and  to  act  vertic- 
ally upward  upon  the  disc  of  the 
upper  turbine  wheel.  The  disc  of  the 
lower  guide-wheel  is,  on  the  other 
hand,  solid,  and  the  weight  of  water 
upon  it  is  supported  by  three  inclined 
rods  passing  through  it  and  the  wheel 
casing. 

These  wheels  will  discharge  430  cubic 
feet  per  second,  and,  acting  under  136 
feet  of  fall  from  the  surface  of  the  upper 
water  to  the  centre  between  the  upper 
and  lower  wheels,  will  make  250  revolu- 
tions per  minute  ;  at  75  per  cent,  effi 
ciency  they  will  give  5000  horse-power. 


gate.  The  turbine  wheels  are  made  of 
bronze,  the  rim  and  buckets  forming  a 
single  casting.  The  shaft  is  a  steel 
tube,  38  inches  in  diameter,  except  at 


SRCTION   OF   GOVERNOR.      FAESCH   &   PICCARD 
DESIGN. 


The  guide-wheel  has  36  buckets  ;  the 
turbine-wheel,  32.  These  buckets  are 
thickened  in  the  middle,  this  being  the 
most  approved  form  of  bucket,  especially 
useful  when  the  wheel  is  acting  at  part 


points  where  it  passes  the  journal  bear- 
ings or  guides,  at  which  it  is  1 1  inches 
in  diameter  and  solid.  A  heavy  fly- 
wheel was  originally  designed  to  be 
mounted  on  this  shaft,  to  enable  the 
governor  the  better  to  control  the 
speed  of  the  wheel,  but  has  been  re- 
placed by  the  revolving  field  of  the 
dynamo.  This  fly-wheel  was  to  have 
been  14^  feet  in  diameter,  to  have 
weighed  10  tons,  and  was  to  have  been 


248 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


NIAGARA   MILL    SITES  AND    TURBINES. 


249 


made  of  forged  iron.  It  was  designed 
for  a  circumferential  speed  of  11,400 
feet  per  minute. 

The  speed-gates  of  the  wheels  are 
plain  circular  rims,  which  throttle  the 
discharge  on  the  outside  of  the  wheels. 
This  makes  a  balanced 
gate,  easy  of  motion. 
Together  with  the  gov- 
ernor shown  and  the  fly- 
wheel, it  is  warranted  by 
the  makers  to  keep  the 
speed  constant  within  two 
per  cent,  under  ordinary 
conditions  of  operation, 
and  not  to  allow  it  to 
vary  more  than  four  per 
cent,  should  the  work 
done  be  suddenly  in- 
creased or  diminished  by 
25  per  cent.  To  shut  the 
wheel  down  tight,  reli- 
ance is  had  upon  the 
headgates  leading  to  the 
penstock.  At  the  upper 
end  of  the  main  shaft  is 
a  thrust  bearing,  likewise 
shown  in  the  drawings, 
to  take  up  pressure 
along  the  shaft,  in  either 
direction  —  upward  or 
downward.  This  pres- 
sure will,  naturally,  vary 
with  the  speed  of  the 
wheel,  among  other 
causes ;  hence  a  thrust 
bearing,  thus  operative 
in  either  vertical  direc- 
tion, is  a  necessity.  A 
system  of  water  cooling 
is  provided  for  this  upper 
thrust  bearing. 

The  plans  of  Escher, 
Wyss  &  Co.  show  twin  Jonval  wheels, 
but  having  their  discharge  from  out  of 
the  wheel  case  in  a  horizontal  direction  ; 
hence,  capable  of  being  governed,  and 
actually  governed,  by  a  speed-gate  of 
very  much  the  same  construction  as  that 
already  described  in  the  case  of  the 
Faesch  &  Piccard  wheel.  There  is  a  post 
or  column  passing  up  through  the  wheel 
from  the  bottom  of  the  wheel  case,  and 
an  ordinary  Fontaine  oil-bearing  near 
the  upper  limit  of  the  case.  These 


wheels,  as  drawn,  are  submerged,  and 
they  discharge  sideways  from  the  slot 
in  which  they  are  to  be  set,  instead  of 
having  the  tail-race  formed  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  slot  and  directly  under  the 
row  of  wheels  set  on  beams  spanning 


PENSTOCK   CONNECTION   WITH    TURBINE. 


the  slot,  as  is  the  case  for  the  turbines 
now  erected.  By  placing  the  governor 
near  the  level  of  the  water  in  the  tail- 
race,  water  from  the  penstock  is  ob- 
tained under  pressure,  and  the  governor 
can  be,  and  is,  designed  to  be  operated 
by  hydraulic  power. 

In  an  article  by  the  present  writer, 
prepared  several  years  ago,  it  was  shown 
that  Lowell,  Lawrence  and  Holyoke, 
Mass.,  combined,  had  only  one-fifth  the 
horse-power  now  being  developed  by 


250 


CASSSKR'S  MAGAZINE. 


the  works  of  the  Niagara  Falls  Power 
Company  ;  that  these  cities  had  grown 
to  have  a  population  of  about  150,000 
people  in  45  years,  essentially  by  reason 
of  having 'some  20,000  horse-power  of 
water-power  to  keep  their  inhabitants 
in  employment ;  that  Niagara  Falls  is 
more  favorably  situated  as  regards 
freight  rates  to  the  rest  of  the  United 
States  than  these  cities  are  ;  and  that  it 
would,  therefore,  not  be  a  rash  pre- 
diction that  the  now  existing  (then 
future)  city  of  Niagara  Falls  would 
have  a  million  inhabitants  in  50  years. 
This  sentence,  the  ever  active  real  es- 
tate boomer  turned  to  his  own  uses, 
though  to  the  discredit  of  its  quoted 
author,  by  writing  "in  a  few  years," 
instead  of  50  years.  But  such  as  it 


was  then  written,  the  author  still  sub- 
scribes to. 

With  a  park  on  both  sides  of  the 
river,  that  has  restored  and  will  forever 
preserve  the  natural  beauties  of  Ni- 
agara Falls  to  succeeding  generations  ; 
with  a  power  development,  likewise,  on 
both  sides  of  the  river,  that  has  been 
designed  with  full  regard  had  to  the 
preservation  of  all  of  these  wonderful 
natural  beauties  ;  with  constant  power 
delivered  at  home  and  to  the  surround- 
ing country,  at  rates  never  before  of- 
fered so  favorable  ;  the  future  develop- 
ment of  the  Buffalo-Niagara  Falls  dis- 
trict, as  a  manufacturing  centre,  no  less 
than  as  a  place  of  residence,  cannot  fail 
to  be  one  of  the  marvels  of  the  fast 
approaching  twentieth  century. 


THE    FAESCH    &    PICCARD    GOVERXOUR    IX    PLACE. 


I/.  B.  STILLWELL  is  the  electrical  engineer 
and  assistant  manager  of  the  Westinghouse 
Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company,  and 
had  under  supervision  the  entire  installation 
of  electrical^apparatus  at  Niagara  Palls,  f 


ELECTRIC   POWER  GENERATION  AT  NIAGARA. 


By  Lewis  Buckley  Stillwell,  Electrical  Engineer. 


ELECTRICITY  as  an 
agent  for  transmitting 
and  distributing 
power  has  received  its 
most  weighty  endorse- 
ment in  its  adoption  by 
the  Cataract  Construction 
Company,  of  New  York, 
for  their  great  project  at 
Niagara.  No  enterprise 
of  modern  times,  involving 
special  and  extraordinary 
engineering  problems,  has 
been  more  carefully,  more 
patiently,  more  systemati- 
cally or  more  intelligently 
studied  than  has  the  utili- 
zation of  this,  the  greatest 
water  power  in  the  world.  The  officers 
and  directors  of  the  company,  controll- 
ing financial  means  ample  for  their  pur- 
pose, have,  for  five  years,  energetically 
and  persistently  endeavored  to  avail 
themselves  of  the  best  resources  of 
modern  engineering  science.  Confront- 
ing a  problem  without  precedent  in  its 
magnitude,  and  almost  without  parallel 
in  its  significance,  they  have  attacked  it 
with  energy  and  ability  of  the  highest 
order,  studied  it  with  keen  insight  and 
sound  judgment  and,  in  solving  it  with 
success,  have  contributed  a  chapter  of 
rare  interest  and  meaning  to  the  history 
of  industrial  progress. 

The  utilization  of  Niagara  for  indus- 
trial purposes  imposes  upon  those  un- 
dertaking it  a  responsibility  far  beyond 
that  which  is  measured  by  the  capital 
invested.  Science  is  cosmopolitan;  she 
recognizes  no  boundary  of  race  or  na- 
tion; and  engineering  science  of  the 
twentieth  century,  in  passing  judgment 
upon  the  methods  and  apparatus  em- 
ployed, while  not  failing  to  take  into 
consideration  the  difficulties  and  limita- 
tions imposed  by  the  boundaries  of  our 


present  knowledge,  will  allow  no  excuse 
for  failure  to  find  out  and  use  the  best 
means  known  to  our  age. 

It  is,  therefore,  a  source  of  profound 
gratification  that,  from  the  outstart, 
the  policy  of  the  company  has  been 
characterized  by  a  breadth  of  view  com- 
mensurate with  the  far-reaching  import- 
ance of  the  enterprise.  The  directors 
have  allowed  no  local  or  even  national 
prejudice  to  bias  their  judgment.  They 
early  threw  the  lists  wide  open  and  in 
the  original  competition  which  they  in- 
augurated, the  international  commission 
passed  upon  no  less  than  twenty-two 
plans  covering  practically  the  whole 
known  range  of  electric,  hydraulic  and 
pneumatic  distribution  of  power,  and 
originating  from  places  as  far  East  as 
the  city  of  Buda-Pesth,  and  as  far  West 
as  San  Francisco. 

It  must  be  gratifying  to  Americans 
that  under  these  conditions  a  system 
developed  by  an  American  company 
has  been  adopted,  but  for  the  recent 
rapid  advancement  in  engineering 
science  which  has  made  this  work  possi- 
ble, America  is  in  no  position  to  claim 
exclusive  credit,  if  she  would.  In  the 
plans  for  the  hydraulic  plant,  Switzer- 
land, the  land  of  water  powers,  shows 
the  way,  while  in  the  design  of  the 
great  electric  generators,  the  most 
powerful  as  yet  produced,  Great  Britain 
is  represented  directly  in  the  excellent 
general  form  of  construction  adopted, 
which  was  proposed  by  Prof.  Geo. 
Forbes,  and  indirectly  in  the  work  of 
Hopkinson,  Kapp,  Thompson,  Mordey, 
and  others,  whose  careful  study  of  the 
principles  underlying  the  construction 
of  electrical  machinery  has  done  much 
to  make  it  possible  to  design  a  machine 
so  far  beyond  the  range  of  actual  ex- 
perience, in  full  confidence  that  the 
results  predicted  from  theory  would 

253 


254 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


ELECTRIC  PO  VVER  AT  NIAGARA. 


255 


be  realized  in  practice.  Perhaps 
no  country  is  more  largely  or  more 
creditably  represented  in  the  great 
Niagara  installation  than  Smiljan  Lika, 
— that  sturdy  little  province  on  the 
Adriatic,  which  has  honoured  itself  by 
producing  Mr.  Nicola  Telsa,  and  were 
it  possible  to  trace  to  its  true  source 
each  one  of  the  great  number  of  ideas 
embodied  in  the  complete  installation, 
it  is  probable  that  we  should  find  nearly 
every  civilized  nation  represented — 
England,  America,  Switzerland,  France, 
Germany,  Italy,  some  in  greater  de- 
gree, some  in  less,  but  all  co-operating 
to  achieve  what  is,  beyond  question, 
one  of  the  most  significant  triumphs  of 
nineteenth  century  engineering  skill. 

The  problem  in  electrical  engineering 
presented  by  the  Cataract  Construction 
Company,  as  defined  by  the  organiza- 
tion of  the  hydraulic  plant  in  the  power 
house  and  the  requirements  of  the  pro- 
posed market  for  the  power  developed, 
may  be  stated  as  follows: 

Given,  ist: — Four  vertical  shafts,  di- 
rect-driven by  turbines  making  250 
revolutions  per  minute  and  capable  of 
delivering  at  the  top  of  each  shaft  from 
5000  to  5500  mechanical  horse-power. 
Additional  turbines  and  shafts  to  be  in- 
stalled as  the  demand  for  power  in- 
creases. 2d: — A  market  for  power, 
beginning  just  outside  the  walls  of  the 
power  house  and  extending  at  least 
twenty  miles  (and  as  much  further  as 
possible),  said  power  to  be  used  for,  (A) 
general  industrial  purposes,  such  as  the 
operation  of  machinery  in  mills  and 
factories;  (B)  the  operation  of  stre'et 
railways;  (C)  lighting  by  arc  and  incan- 
descent lights;  (D)  electrolytic  pur- 
poses; (E)  heating. 

Required: — The  most  reliable  and 
efficient  method  and  machinery  for  util- 
izing the  power  for  the  purposes  named. 
The  system  or  organization  of  electric 
apparatus  which  was  adopted  is  known 
as  the  Tesla  Polyphase  Alternating- 
Current  System.  Each  generator  de- 
livers alternating  current  to  each  of  two 
circuits,  the  currents  in  these  circuits 
differing  from  each  other  in  their  time 
relation,  or  phase,  by  90  degrees;  that 
is  to  say,  the  current  delivered  to  each 


circuit  attains  its  maximum  value  at  the 
instant  when  the  current  delivered  to 
the  other  circuit  is  zero.  The  frequency 
is  25  cycles  per  second, — in  other  words, 
the  direction  of  the  current  is  reversed 
3000  times  per  minute.  By  means  of 
rheostats,  controlling  the  field  circuits 
of  the  generators,  the  potential  of  the 
current  delivered  is  adjustable  up  to  the 
limit  of  2400  effective  volts.  In  ordi- 
nary service,  and  until  transmission 
over  great  distances  is  undertaken,  the 
normal  potential  will  approximate  2100 
volts,  but,  to  compensate  for  the  losses 
incident  to  long  distance  transmission, 
the  generators  may  be  operated  at  any 
potential  not  exceeding  2400  volts. 

The  currents  delivered  by  the  gene- 
rators are  conveyed  through  heavily  in- 
sulated cables  to  the  switchboard. 
There,  by  means  of  suitable  switching 
devices,  the  engineer  in  charge  of  the 
station  may,  at  will,  connect  any  one  of 
the  generators,  or  any  combination  of 
the  generators,  to  the  external  circuits 
which  convey  the  currents  from  the 
power  house  to  the  consumers.  These 
external  circuits,  known  as  feeder  or 
supply  circuits,  passing  from  the  switch- 
board, are  supported  upon  iron  brackets 
in  a  brick-lined  subway  within  the  power 
house,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  on 
page  286.  Insulated,  lead-covered 
cables  are  used,  and  these,  leaving  the 
subway,  are  continued  through  the 
bridge  connecting  the  power  house  with 
the  transformer  house  on  the  east  bank 
of  the  power  canal.  The  cables  con- 
veying current,  intended  for  the  use  of 
tenants  of  the  company  and  other  con- 
sumers of  power  within  a  radius  of  2  or 
3  miles  of  the  power  house,  pass  directly 
through  the  transformer  house  and  en- 
ter a  conduit  leading  to  the  works  of 
those  tenants  who  are,  at  present,  the 
principal  users  of  the  power. 

Current  intended  for  transmission  to 
considerable  distances,  as,  for  example, 
to  Buffalo,  will  pass  from  the  switch- 
board through  similar  lead-covered 
cables  in  the  power  house  subway  and 
the  bridge  to  the  transformer  house. 
There  it  will  enter  the  "step-up" 
transformers,  and  from  these  current  at 
high  potential  (E.  G.  20,000  volts)  will 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


ELECTRIC  POWER   AT 


H  si  XT' 

.NJA^ 

NIAGARA. 


257 


be  delivered  to  the  long-distance  trans- 
mitting circuits.  It  has  not  yet  been 
determined  whether  these  long-distance 
circuits  shall  be  overhead  or  under- 
ground. At  the  distant  end  of  the  cir- 
cuits ' '  step-down  "  transformers  will  be 
employed  to  reduce  the  potential  of  the 
currents  to  an  amount  suitable  for  local 
distribution. 

The  kind  and  amount   of  apparatus 
which  it  will  be  necessary  to  install  upon 


Referring  to  this  diagram,  each  of 
the  generators  A  and  B  delivers  two 
separate  and  distinct  alternating  cur- 
rents to  the  step-up  or  raising  trans- 
formers RT,  RT,  RT2,  and  RT3, 
through  the  switchboard  D.  The  cur- 
rent, delivered  by  the  generators  at 
2000  volts,  is  transformed  by  the  raising 
transformers  to  a  high  potential  suitable 
to  long-distance  transmission,  say 
20,000  volts,  and  is  delivered  by  them 


ONE   OF   THE   5OOO   HORSE-POWER   ARMATURES. 


the  premises  of  the  users  of  <  power  de- 
pends upoa  the  kind  of  service  required. 
In  the  case  of  large  motors,  the  current 
delivered  by  the  local  distributing  cir- 
cuits at  Niagara  may  be  supplied  to  the 
machines  without  reduction  of  potential 
by  transformers.  In  the  case  of  smaller 
motors,  and  in  the  case  of  com  mutating 
machines  used  to  supply  direct  current, 
step-down  transformers  will  ordinarily 
be  employed.  The  general  organiza- 
tion of  the  system  and  character  of  the 
apparatus  required  for  each  of  the  prin- 
cipal types  of  service  are  illustrated  in 
the  diagram  on  the  opposite  page. 

7-3 


to  the  transmission  circuits  L,  L1,  L*  - 
and  L3.  At  a  point  conveniently  lo- 
cated with  reference  to  the  district 
where  lights  and  motors  are  to  be  sup- 
plied a  sub-station  is  erected.  The 
transmission  circuits  enter  the  station 
and  deliver  their  currents  to  the  step- 
down  or  lowering  transformeis  LT, 
LT1,  LT2,  and  LT3,  which,  in  turn, 
deliver  currents  at  moderate  potentials, 
suitable  for  local  distribution. 

The  switchboard  F  affords  means 
whereby  the  circuits  coming  from  the 
various  groups  of  lowering  transformers 
may  be  readily  transferred  and  inter- 


258 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


FIELD    RING    READY   TO    BE    LOWERED    ON    A    GENERATOR  SHAFT. 


changed,  so  that  any  of  the  transmission 
circuits  may  be  used  to  supply  any  of 
the  local  distributing  circuits,  as  may  be 
advantageous  or  convenient,  or  all  of 
the  local  circuits  may  be  supplied  with 
current  from  bus  bars  to  which  the 
transmission  circuits  of  like  phase  are 
connected  in  parallel. 

In  the  diagram,  beginning  at  the  left 
of  the  switchboard,  the  first  four- wire 


circuit  is  used  to  supply  alternating  cur- 
rent to  the  motor-generator  or  rotary 
transformer  MG,  which,  in  turn,  de- 
livers direct  current  at  500  volts  to  a 
trolley  line,  from  which  the  street  car  K 
is  supplied.  The  second  circuit  supplies 
the  motors  M,  M1,  W,  and  M3  of  the 
two-phase,  synchronous  type,  or  of  the 
induction  type,  which  are  adapted  to 
general  power  purposes  in  mills,  fac- 


ELECTRIC  POWER  A 7"  NIAGARA. 


259 


tories,  etc.  The  next  four-wire  circuit  is 
divided  into  two  two-wire  circuits,  and  is 
used  to  supply  incandescent  lamps 
through  the  transformers  b,  b1,  and  b2. 
The  next  circuit  supplies  alternating 
current  to  the  motor-generator  MG2, 
which  delivers  direct  current  for  arc 
lighting  purposes.  The  last  circuit 
shown  supplies  the  motor-generator 
MG1,  which,  in  turn,  delivers  direct 
current  at  a  low  potential  for  electrolytic 
purposes,  as  indicated  in  the  vats  V, 
V1,  V2,  and  V3. 

It  is  not  intended  to  attempt  the  sup- 
ply of  incandescent  lights  in  general  in 
the  manner  indicated  in  the  diagram,  as 
the  frequency  is  rather  low  for  that  pur- 
pose. At  25  cycles  per  second  a  slight 
wavering  or  variation  in  the  intensity  of 
the  light  is  perceptible  under  certain 
conditions  in  the  case  of  lamps  having 
especially  thin  filaments,  such  as  a  10 
candle-power  lamp  for  a  zoo-volt  cir- 
cuit. In  loo-volt  lamps  of  greater 


candle-power,  and  in  50- volt  lamps,  the 
light  is  entirely  satisfactory.  Arc  light- 
ing can,  of  course,  be  accomplished  not 
only  in  the  way  shown  in  the  diagram, 
but  also  by  the  indirect  method  of  em- 
ploying polyphase  motors  to  drive  arc 
light  machines  of  the  types  generally  in 
use. 

The  frequency  selected  is  in  every 
respect  admirable  for  power  purposes, 
and  was  chosen  in  preference  to  a  higher 
frequency  because  the  amount  of 
energy  required  for  lighting  from 
Niagara  will,  for  many  years,  and  per- 
haps for  all  time,  constitute  but  a  com- 
paratively small  part  of  the  energy  dis- 
tributed. At  present  the  only  practicable 
way  to  utilize  Niagara  power  for  light- 
ing purposes  is  by  substituting  motors 
for  the  engines  now  used  in  arc  and  in- 
candescent lighting  plants  in  Niagara, 
Tonawanda,  Buffalo  and  other  cities 
and  towns  to  which  the  circuits  may  be 
extended.  When  the  demand  for 


THE   FIRST   GENERATOR   IN   POSITION   IN   THE   POWER   HOUSE   AT   NIAGARA. 


260 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


SIDE  ELEVATION  OF  ONE   OF  THE 
GENERATORS. 


A  TOP   VIEW, 


ELECTRIC  POWER  AT  NIAGARA. 


261 


current  to  be  used  for  lighting  purposes 
becomes  sufficiently  important  to  justify 
a  change  in  the  apparatus,  and,  per- 
haps, in  the  methods  now  employed  for 
lighting  the  cities  and  towns  to  which 
the  circuits  may  be  extended,  a  certain 
number  of  generators  of  higher  fre- 
quency may  be  installed. 

The  drawings  reproduced  on  this 
and  the  opposite  pages  are  front  and 
side  elevations  and  a  plan,  showing 
the  relation  of  the  generator,  the  bed 


space  occupied  by  the  generators,  with 
the  actual  size  of  the  machine  as  shown 
on  page  258. 

The  height  of  each  generator  from  the 
bottom  of  the  bedplate  to  the  top  of  the 
floor  of  the  bridge  is  1 1  ft.  6  in.  The 
diameter  of  the  bedplate  is  14  ft.,  and 
the  outside  diameter  of  the  revolving 
field  ring  is  n  ft.  7^5  in.  Each  gene- 
rator delivers  5000  electrical  horse- 
power, and  requires  about  5150  horse- 
power delivered  through  the  turbine 


FRONT   ELEVATION  AND  SECTION"  THROUGH   FOUNDATION. 


of  concrete  supporting  the  massive  cap- 
stone and  the  excellently  constructed 
arch  which  spans  the  wheel  pit.  On  pages 
262  and  263  sections  through  the  power 
house  and  wheel  pit,  reproduced  from 
the  general  drawings,  show  the  genera- 
tors in  relation  to  the  power  house,  the 
wheel  pit  and  the  hydraulic  plant.  The 
large  scale  upon  which  the  work  has 
been  planned  and  carried  out  is  graphi- 
cally evident  upon  comparison  of  these 
sections,  illustrating  the  relatively  small 


shaft  to  drive  it  under  full  load.  Ex- 
clusive of  the  bridge,  which  is  simply 
used  to  give  access  to  the  brushes  bear- 
ing upon  the  collecting  rings  at  the  top 
of  the  shaft,  the  entire  machine  could 
be  placed  in  a  room  15  ft.  square  and 
15  ft.  high. 

The  weight  of  each  generator  is 
170,000  Ibs.,  of  which  about  79.000 
Ibs.  are  in  the  revolving  element,  which 
is  made  up  of  the  shaft,  the  driver  to 
which  the  field  ring  is  attached,  the 


262 


CASSIER'S    MAGAZINE. 


PARTIAL   LONGITUDINAL  SECTION   OF   THE   POWER   HOUSE   AND   WHEELPIT. 


field  ring  with  its  pole  pieces  and  bob- 
bins, and  the  collecting  rings,  carried 
upon  an  extension  of  the  shaft  above 
the  driver.  The  speed  at  which  the  field 
revolves  is  normally  250  revolutions  per 
minute,  and  the  fly-wheel  effect  of  the 
revolving  parts  of  the  machine,  measured 
by  the  pounds  multiplied  by  feet  per 
second  squared,  is  1,274,000,000. 


The  conditions  to  be  met  in  the  con- 
struction of  the  generators,  as  deter- 
mined by  the  plans  adopted  for  the 
hydraulic  plant,  were  such  as  to  impose 
very  considerable  difficulty  upon  the 
designers  and  manufacturers.  These 
conditions  were,  in  brief,  an  output  of 
5000  electrical  horse-power,  a  speed  of 
250  revolutions  per  minute,  a  weight  in 


ELECTRIC  POWER  AT  NIAGARA. 


263 


the  revolving  element  of  the  machine 
not  exceeding  80,000  Ibs.,  and  a  fly 
wheel  effect  of  the  revolving  parts, 
measured  by  the  pounds  multiplied  by 
feet  per  second  squared,  of  not  less  than 
i ,  i  oo,  ooo,  ooo. 

In  saying  that  the  imposition  of  these 
conditions  involved  difficulties,  no  re- 
flection upon  the  wisdom  of  the  decision 
which  imposed  these  conditions  is  in- 
tended. It  would  be,  perhaps,  more 
exact  to  say  that  the  general  specifica- 
tions laid  down  were  such  as  called  for 
the  highest  skill  in  the  designers  and 
builders  of  the  generators.  The  con- 
ditions have  been  met  successfully,  and 
the  object  which  the  officers  of  the 
Cataract  Construction  Company  had  in 
view  is  attained.  The  Niagara  gene- 
rators represent  to-day  the  highest  state 
of  the  art  of  design  and  construction  ol 
electrical  machinery. 

The  construction  of  the  generators  is 
illustrated  by  the  reproductions  from 
the  general  drawings  on  pages  264  and 
265.  In  the  vertical  section  through 
the  centre  line  of  the  shaft  on  page  264, 
a  represents  the  stationary  armature, 
secured  in  place  by  the  armature  sup- 
port AS,  which,  in  turn,  rests  upon  the 
bedplate  B.  One  of  the  four  terminals 
at  which  the  current  from  the  armature 
is  delivered  to  the  cables  leading  to  the 
switchboard,  is  shown  at  T.  Of  course, 
since  the  armature  is  stationary,  no 
ring  collectors  or  brushes  are  needed. 
The  revolving  part  of  the  generator 
consists  of  the  shaft  S,  carrying  the 
driver  D,  the  field  ring  FR,  the  steel 
pole  pieces  P,  the  field  bobbins  FB 
(each  bobbin  surrounding  a  pole  piece), 
and  the  collector  C,  by  means  of  which 
the  current  delivered  from  the  exciters 
to  the  brush  holders  b,  b' ,  is  conveyed 
to  the  field  bobbins.  In  the  horizontal 
section  through  the  armature  and  field, 
a  is  the  armature,  FR  the  field  ring, 
P,  P',  etc.,  are  the  pole  pieces  and  B, 
B',  etc. ,  the  field  bobbins.  The  clear- 
ance between  the  armature  and  the  field 
poles  is  one  inch. 

The  power  house  is  equipped  with 
a  5o-ton  electric  crane,  built  by  Messrs. 
Wm.  Sellers  &  Co.,  of  Philadelphia, 
which  is  of  ample  strength  to  handle 


CROSS   SKCTION   OF    POW^R    HOVSE   AXD   WHEELPIT. 

any  part  of  the  electric  or  hydraulic 
machinery,  and  by  means  of  this  the 
revolving  parts  of  the  machines  may  be 
removed  when  necessary.  In  doing  this 
the  collecting  rings  near  the  top  of  the 
shaft  are  first  removed,  and  the  bridge 
is  taken  out  of  the  way.  The  key 
which  fixes  the  driver  to  the  shaft  is 
then  withdrawn,  and  a  special  tool, 


GASSIER' S  MAGAZINE. 


VERTICAL    SECTION    OF   ONE    OF    THE   5000    HORSE-POWER    GENERATORS. 


which  may  be  described  as  a  combined 
eyebolt  and  hydraulic  pump,  is  attached 
to  the  driver  by  eight  heavy  tap  bolts. 
The  pressure  pump  is  then  operated  by 
hand,  and,  leakage  of  water  being  pre- 
vented by  packing  rings,  a  pressure  of 
many  thousand  pounds,  tending  to  lift 
the  driver  with  reference  to  the  shaft, 
is  exerted.  In  this  way  the  driver  is 
loosened  from  the  shaft,  and,  with 
the  field,  is  then  raised  bodily  by 
the  electric  crane.  The  bearings  and 
the  castings  which  support  them  are 
next  lifted  out,  and  theshaftis  removed 
if  necessary.  When  this  has  been 
accomplished,  a  clear  space  is  left  within 
the  fixed  part  of  the  machine,  that  is, 
within  the  armature  support,  five  feet 


in  diameter,  through  which  parts  of  the 
turbine  shaft  or  other  machinery  from 
the  wheel  pit  can  be  raised. 

An  attractive  feature  of  the  form  of 
construction  adopted  is  the  fact  that 
the  magnetic  attraction  between  the 
field  poles  and  the  armature  acts 
against  the  centrifugal  force.  As  com- 
pared with  the  centrifugal  force  at  high 
speeds  at  which  the  ring  must  still  be 
safe,  the  magnetic  attraction  is  not  very 
great,  and,  unless  the  field  is  charged, 
there  is,  of  course,  no  magnetic  pull 
between  armature  and  field.  But  with 
normal  conditions,  this  attraction  tends 
to  reduce  the  strains  in  the  ring,  due  to 
centrifugal  force,  whereas,  were  the 
armature  revolved  inside  of  the  field, 


ELECTRIC  POWER   AT  NIAGARA. 


265 


the  magnetic  pull  would  be  added  to 
the  centrifugal  force. 

The  armature  and  field  are  ventilated 
by  means  of  openings  in  the  driver, 
provided  with  special  ventilators  v,  vr, 
so  arranged  as  to  draw  air  up  through 
the  machine,  and  throw  it  out  at  the 
top.  A  considerable  draught  is  neces- 
sary, since,  at  full  load,  heat  equivalent 
to  about  100  horse-power,  representing 
the  loss  in  the  generator  due  to  mag- 
netization of  the  iron  and  the  resistance 
encountered  by  the  currents  traversing 
the  conductors,  must  be  dissipated. 

The  sections  on  pages  260  and  261 
show  the  method  of  securing  the  bed 
plate  in  place.  Eight  2% -inch  bolts  are 
used,  and,  at  their  lower  ends,  are  se- 
curely held  by  castings  buried  in  the 


concrete  foundation.  The  masonry  is 
of  the  highest  class,  massive  blocks  of 
Queenston  limestone  being  used  for  the 
capstone  and  in  the  construction  of  the 
arch.  In  the  latter  a  cylindrical  steel 
casting  takes  the  place  of  the  keystone, 
the  turbine  shaft  passing  through  it  to 
the  dynamo  shaft  above. 

The  armature  support  is  a  single 
casting  of  cylindrical  form,  and  is  se- 
curely bolted  to  the  bedplate,  upon 
which  it  is  adjusted  by  set  screws  in  a 
flange  around  the  circular  bed,  and  is 
afterwards  babbitted  to  secure  rigidity. 
This  cylindrical  casting  has  on  its  outer 
periphery  a  series  of  vertical  ribs,  which 
terminate  at  the  lower  ends  in  a  flange 
upon  which  the  armature  ring  rests. 
The  latter  was  lowered  to  this  flange 


HORIZONTAL  SECTTOX. 


266 


CASSIER'S   MAGAZINE. 


THE    ARMATURE   OF  THE   SECOND   GENERATOR   IN   PLACE. 


while  heated,  and  then  shrunk  intp 
place  against  the  ribs  on  the  cylindrical 
support.  Five  of  these  ribs  are  pro- 
vided with  dove-tailed  keyways,  corre- 
sponding with  keyways  in  the  armature 
ring.  Into  these,  after  the  ring  was 
shrunk  into  place,  metal  keys  were 
cast.  While  the  outer  surface  of  this 
casting  which  supports  the  armature  is 
cylindrical,  its  inner  surfaces,  at  the 
top  and  bottom,  form  sections  of  two 
truncated  cones  into  which  fits  and  is 
securely  bolted  a  second  casting  carry- 
ing two  massive,  five-arm  spiders, 
which  support  the  upper  and  lower 
bearings.  The  illustration  on  page  267 
shows  the  armature  support  and  arma- 
ture core  after  the  latter  has  been 
shrunk  into  place.  The  vertical  slots 
which  will  be  noted  around  the  periph- 
ery of  the  core,  are  ready  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  armature  conductors. 
The  construction  of  the  casting  which 


carries  the  spiders  supporting  the  bear- 
ings is  illustrated  on  the  same  page. 
The  end  view  shows  the  bushings  in 
place,  and  these  bushings  are  sepa- 
rately illustrated  on  page  268.  The 
bearings,  which  are  of  the  best  quality 
of  bearing  metal,  are  in  two  parts,  are 
fitted  into  conical  bearings  of  iron  sur- 
rounding the  shaft,  and  are  provided 
with  set  screws  to  assist  in  withdrawing 
or  tightening  when  necessary.  The 
bearings  are  lubricated  by  oil  under 
pressure,  admitted  at  a  point  midway 
between  the  top  and  bottom,  and  also 
at  a  point  near  the  top. 

Grooves  are  cast  in  the  hub  of  each 
spider,  with  pipes  at  each  end,  permit- 
ting the  circulation  of  water  to  cool  the 
bearings,  this  water  being  conveyed  to 
the  bearings  direct  from  the  city  mains 
at  a  pressure  of  60  pounds  per  square 
inch.  The  oil  is  supplied  from  a  reser- 
voir placed  at  an  elevation  of  about  30 


ELECTRIC  POWER   AT  NIAGARA. 


267 


ft.  above  the  upper  bearing.  After 
having  passed  through  the  bearings,  it 
is  filtered  and  pumped  back  into  the 
reservoir.  The  pressure  at  which  it  is 
supplied  to  the  machine  is  that  due  to 
gravity. 


THE   ARMATURE   SUPPORT   AND   CORE. 

The  illustrations  on  pages  269  and 
266  show,  respectively,  the  armature 
core,  or  ring,  in  place  upon  its  support 
before  winding,  and  the  armature  com- 
plete, with  conductors  in  the  grooves 
or  slots  around  the  periphery  of  the 
core.  The  armature  core  is  built  up  of 


of  the  core  consists  of  eleven  segments, 
which  are  so  placed  that  all  joints  in 
each  layer  are  overlapped  by  the  seg- 
ments of  the  adjacent  layers.  One  of 
the  sheets  of  steel  is  shown  on  page 
268.  These  pieces  are  punched  out 
of  large  sheets  of  a  certain  prede- 
termined quality,  .015  of  an  inch 
thick,  by  steel  dies  in  powerful  presses. 
They  are  afterwards  thoroughly  an- 
nealed. In  this  process  of  annealing, 
the  surfaces  of  the  segments  are  oxi- 
dized, the  oxide  serving  as  insulation 
to  reduce  the  eddy  currents  which  are 
set  up  in  the  iron  of  the  armature  when 
the  machine  is  in  operation. 

The  ring  thus  built  up  is  securely 
held  together  by  sixty-six  bolts  of 
nickel  steel,  containing  a  high  per- 
centage of  nickel  which  renders  them 
practically  non-magnetic.  These  bolts 
are,  of  course,  carefully  insulated  from 
the  core.  The  large  discs,  or  end- 
plates,  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the 
armature  ring  are  of  brass.  At  the 
time  of  tightening  the  bolts,  the  steel 
plates  are  pressed  closely  together  by 


SIDE   VIEW   OF   CASTING   CARRYING   SPIDER   FOR 
BEARINGS. 

thin  sheets  of  mild  steel,  No.  306.  W., 
O.,  and,  to  secure  free  circulation  of 
air,  is  divided  horizontally  into  six 
equal  parts,  separated  from  one  an- 
other by  one-inch  spaces.  Each  layer 


END  VIEW  OF  THE  CASTING. 

powerful  hand-presses.  The  six  equal 
parts,  or  layers,  into  which  the  core  of 
the  armature  is  divided,  are  separated 
from  one  another  by  segments  of  cast 
brass,  these  segments  being  cast  in  such 
form  that,  while  they  have  sufficient 
strength  to  withstand  the  pressure  under 
which  the  armature  core  is  assembled, 
the  larger  part  of  the  spaces  between 
the  six  adjacent  rings  or  steel  plates  is 
left  open  for  the  circulation  of  air. 
The  armature  ring,  when  finally 


268 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


built  up,  is  turned  on  the  inner  surface 
so  as  to  accurately  fit  the  ribs  of  the 
armature  support.  It  is  then  heated, 
and  lowered  into  place  against  the  flange 
on  the  support,  and,  in  cooling,  shrinks 
itself  tightly  into  place  against  the  ribs. 
The  armature  conductors  consist  of 
copper  bars  iH  in.  by  TV  in.  in  section, 
the  edges  of  the  bars  being  rounded  to 
a  radius  of  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch 
to  avoid  cutting  the  insulation.  Two 
of  these  bars,  after  being  insulated, 
are  placed  in  each  of  the  187 
slots  around  the  periphery  of  the  arma- 
ture core.  The  conductivity  of  the 
bars  used  is  above  100  per  cent.,  by 


DETAILS  OF  ARMATURE  BEARINGS. 

Matthiesen's  standard.  In  the  case  of 
the  second  generator  the  conductivity 
of  the  copper,  furnished  by  the  Wash- 
burn  &  Moen  Mfg.  Co.,  of  Worcester, 
Mass.,  is  102.6  percent.,  which  strik- 
ingly illustrates  the  fact  that  what  was 
considered  pure  copper  when  the  stand- 
ard referred  to,  and  still  generally  used, 


ONE  OF  THE  SHEETS  MAKING  UP  THE 
ARMATURE  CORE. 

was  determined,  is  now  inferior  to  cer- 
tain grades  of  commercial  copper.  The 
proper  insulation  of  these  conductors  is 
a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance. 
Each  conductor  must  be  separated 
from  its  neighbors  and  from  the  iron  of 


the  armature  core  by  insulating  mate- 
rial which  is  abundantly  able  to  with- 
stand the  potential  to  which  it  will  be 
subjected,  and  in  order  to  be  sure  of 
this,  a  large  factor  of  safety  is  allowed; 
that  is,  the  insulation  is  tested  by  apply- 


JUNCTION   OF   ARMATURE    BARS   AND   CON- 
NECTORS  BEFORE   SOLDERING   AND 
INSULATING. 

ing  a  potential  several  times  as  great  as 
any  to  which  it  will  be  subjected  in 
service. 

At  the  factory,  the  insulation  of  each 
bar  was  tested  by  applying  a  potential 
of  15,000  volts.  One  terminal  of  the 
transformer  used  in  testing  was  con- 
nected to  the  conductor,  and  the  other 
terminal  was  connected  to  a  layer  of  tin- 
foil, wrapped  about  the  outside  of  the 
insulation.  During  the  erection  of  the 
generators  at  Niagara,  the  insulation 
was  again  tested  by  applying  a  potential 
of  6000  volts,  one  terminal  of  the  testing 
transformer  being  connected  to  the  con- 
ductors, while  the  other  was  connected 
to  the  armature  core.  An  alternating 
potential  was  used  in  both  tests,  and 
the  values  given  are  in  each  case  the 
mean  or  effective  potential. 

The  material  used  for  insulating  the 
bars  is  principally  mica.  The  armature 
conductors  project  above  and  below  the 
core,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  on 
page  269,  and  connections  are  made  by 
pieces  of  copper,  punched  from  large 
sheets  and  shaped  into  proper  form  by 
presses  and  iron  moulds.  These  con- 
nectors are  insulated  by  mica  and  rub- 
ber insulating  tape,  the  former  being 
used  only  where  connectors  conveying 


ELECTRIC  POWER  AT  NIAGARA. 


269 


currents   of  considerable  difference    of 
potential  are  adjacent  to  each  other. 

It  is  very  important  that  good  elec- 
trical connection  be  made  at  the  junction 
of  connector  and  armatu-re  bar.  The 
illustration  on  page  268  illustrates  the 
connection  before  the  solder  is  applied. 
Three  holes  drilled  through  the  split 
end  of  the  connector  correspond  to 
three  holes  in  the  end  of  the  armature 
bar.  The  split  end  of  the  connector  is 
fitted  closely  to  the  end  of  the  bar,  and 
when  the  holes  in  the  connector  and 
bar  are  properly  aligned  they  are  se- 
curely fixed  in  place  by  three  wrought 
iron  bolts,  the  holes  through  one  side 
of  the  connector  being  reamed  out  to 
receive  the  heads  of  the  bolts.  After  the 


nuts  are  tightened  into  place,  the  pro- 
jecting ends  of  the  bolts  are  upset;  that 
is  to  say,  they  are  split  and,  as  it  were, 
riveted  to  lock  the  nuts. 

The  joint  is  then  thoroughly  soldered, 
this  work  being  greatly  facilitated  by 
the  use  of  an  electrical  soldering  tool. 
The  process  will  be  best  understood  by 
referring  to  the  illustration  on  this  page, 
which  was  taken  during  the  erection  of 
the  first  generator.  A  transformer, 
supplied  with  alternating  current  at  a 
potential  of  about  150  volts,  is  so  wound 
as  to  deliver  a  current  of  very  large 
quantity  but  low  pressure.  This  cur- 
rent is  coveyed  through  heavy  jaws,  or 
terminals,  of  copper  to  the  point  of 
junction  between  the  armature  bar  and 


ELECTRICALLY  SOLDERING   THE   CONNECTION'S   OF   AN   ARMATURE   WINDING. 


270 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


its  connector,  and  in  a  few  seconds  this 
point  is  heated  to  a  high  temperature. 
The  joint  is  then  readily  flooded  with 
solder.  This  is  afterwards  dressed  up 
by  a  file,  and  the  joint  is  thoroughly 
insulated. 

In  the  illustration  the  soldering  trans- 
former and  one  of  the  operatives  are 


page  266,  the  conductors  are  so  con-, 
nected  as  to  form  two  complete  circuits, 
each  thoroughly  insulated  from  the 
other  and  from  the  steel  core,  and  so 
related  to  each  other  that  the  electro- 
motive forces  induced  in  them  by  the 
revolving  magnetic  field  are  ninety  de- 
grees apart. 


THE   GENERATOR    SHAFT. 


seen  carried  at  one  end  of  an  oak  frame, 
supported  upon  the  shaft  of  the  genera- 
tor and  counter- weighted  at  its  opposite 
end.  In  soldering  the  connections  the 
operative  slowly  revolves  the  frame 
about  the  armature.  The  seat  which 
carries  him  is  adjustable,  so  that  the 
connections  at  the  bottom  of  the  arma- 
ture, as  well  as  at  the  top,  can  be 


Coming  now  to  the  revolving  parts  of 
the  generator,  we  begin  with  the  shaft, 
which  is  shown  on  this  page.  It  is  of 
open-hearth  steel,  and  was  forged  and 
rough- turned  by  the  Cleveland  City 
Forge  and  Iron  Company  of  Cleveland, 
Ohio.  The  diameter  of  the  shaft  in  the 
bearings  is  12!!  in.  It  is  tapered  at  the 
upper  end  to  receive  the  driver,  and  a 


THE    DRIVER   FOR   THE    FIELD    RING. 


reached,  and  it  is  provided  with  rails 
upon  which  the  transformer  is  pushed 
forward  until  the  copper  jaws  grasp  the 
connection,  or  withdrawn  after  the  sold- 
ering is  completed. 

When   the    armature   is   completely 
wound,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  on 


flange,  27  in.  in  diameter,  is  forged  at 
the  lower  end  to  provide  means  for  con- 
nection to  the  flange  at  the  top  of  the 
turbine  shaft.  These  flanges  are  bolted 
together  by  eight  tapered  steel  bolts. 
At  its  extreme  upper  end  the  shaft  is 
threaded  to  provide  means  for  securing 


ELECTRIC  POWER  AT  NIAGARA. 


271 


in  place  the  revolving  parts  which  pro- 
ject above  the  driver  and  carry  the  col- 
lecting rings. 

For  the  purpose  of  securing  informa- 
tion as  to  the  physical  properties  of  the 
steel  used  for  the  shaft,  it  was  originally 
forged  of  extra  length  ;  an  end,  several 
inches  in  length,  was  then  cut  off,  and 
from  this  five  samples  were  taken,  two 
being  cut  from  the  periphery  of  the  shaft 
at  opposite  ends  of  a  diameter;  one,  from 
the  centre  of  the  shaft;  and  two,  from 
points  midway  between  the  periphery 
and  the  centre,  as  illustrated  in  the  cut 
on  this  page,  where  the  numbers  i, 
2,  3,  4  and  5  indicate  the  places  in  the 
section  of  the  shaft  from  which  the  test 
samples  were  taken.  These  samples 
were  tested  by  the  Pittsburgh  Testing 
Laboratory  at  Pittsburgh,  and  the  fact 
that  forged  shafts  are  stronger  near  their 
outer  surface  than  elsewhere  is  shown 
in  an  interesting  manner  by  the  results, 
which  are  set  forth  in  the  following- 
table  : 

Reduction  EJlonga- 


Sample 
No. 

Tensile 
Strength 
in  Pounds 
Per  sq.  in. 

Elastic 
Limit  in 
Pounds 
Per  sq.  in. 

of  Area 
in  Per- 
centage 
of  Area 
Before 

tion  in 
Percent- 
age of 
Length 
Before 

Test. 

Test. 

i 

63,000 

35>5°° 

53 

37-5 

2 

59  ooo 

29.500 

51 

38 

3 

56,000 

28,500 

375 

3t 

4 

58,500 

3i,5oo 

4i-5 

38 

5 

62,500 

35,ooo 

55-5 

35 

A  view  of  the  driver  is  given  on  page 
270.  It  is  ii  ft.  8  in.  in  diameter.  As 
has  been  noted  in  describing  the  shaft, 
the  latter  is  tapered  at  its  upper  end, 
and  by  referring  to  the  illustration  on 
page  270  it  will  be  seen  that  a  heavy 
key- way  is  cut  into  the  tapered  portion. 
The  bearing  in  the  driver  which  fits 
over  this  tapered  end  of  the  shaft  is  also 
provided  with  a  key-way,  and  the 
driver  and  shaft  are  held  together  by  a 
long  and  massive  steel  key.  The 
driver  is  of  mild  cast  steel,  and  was 
turned  out  by  the  Midvale  Steel  Com- 
pany, of  Philadelphia.  It  was  guar- 
anteed to  have  a  tensile  strength  of 
about  60,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  but  the 
tests  of  samples  of  steel,  taken  from  the 
casting  near  the  periphery  of  the  first 
driver,  showed  a  tensile  strength  of 


74, 700  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  an  elastic  limit 
of  44,590  Ibs:  per  sq.  in.,  an  elongation 
of  30  per  cent,  in  3  in.,  and  a  reduction 
of  area  of  43  per  cent.  The  surface  of 
the  fracture  was  silky  and  fine-grained. 
The  drivers  are  turned  on  their  outside 
surfaces  and  are  strengthened  by  six 
deep  ribs  on  the  inside. 

Perhaps  the  most  interesting  part  of 
each  generator  is  the  field  magnet  ring, 
which  not  only  illustrates  the  wonderful 
physical  properties  of  nickel  steel,  but 
demonstrates  in  a  most  striking  manner 
the  perfection  of  modern  forging  ma- 


TEST  PIECES   FROM   THE   GENERATOR   SHAFT. 

chinery  and  the  skill  of  those  who  use 
it  in  the  great  plant  of  the  Bethlehem 
Iron  Company,  at  South  Bethlehem, 
Pa.  The  ring  is  forged  in  one  piece 
without  weld,  and  is  shown  in  the 
photographic  reproduction  on  the  follow- 
ing page.  The  Bethlehem  Iron  Company 
guaranteed  that  the  rings  for  the 
first  three  generators  should  have  a 
tensile  strength  of  not  less  than  70,000 
Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  an  elastic  limit  of 
38,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in.,  and  an  elonga- 
tion of  about  25  per  cent,  in  2  in.;  but 
they  have  done  much  better.  Three 
samples,  cut  from  the  first  ring  befor  j 


Of  TH£ 


272 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


NICKEL   STEBL   FIELD    RING,    FORGED   WITHOUT   A   WELD    BY   THE    BETHLEHEM    IRON   COMPANY. 

DIAMETER,    II    FT.    7^3    IN. 


turning  were  tested  \vith  the  following 
results  : 


Elongation 

Sample 
No. 

Tensile 
Strength 
Mr  asured  in 
Pounds 
IVr  sq.  in. 

Elastic  Limit 
Measured  iu 
Pound* 
Per  sq.  iu. 

in  2" 
Measured 
iu  Percent- 
age of 
Original 

Length. 

i 

82,915 

53,56o 

2705 

2 

81,110 

47,230 

25  75 

3 

82.  ,40 

49,280 

225 

The  following  brief  account  of  the 
method  of  making  the  field  rings  is 
based  upon  notes  furnished  by  Mr.  R. 


W.  Davenport,  second  vice-president  of 
the  Bethlehem  Iron  Company.  A 
nickel  steel  ingot,  54  inches  in  diameter 
at  the  bottom,  197  inches  long,  and 
weighing  about  120,000  Ibs.,  was  cast 
solid,  and  compressed  by  hydraulic 
pressure  when  fluid  and  during  solidifi- 
cation. This  ingot  is  shown  in  the 
illustration  on  page  274.  A  hole  was 
bored  through  its  longitudinal  axis,  as 
shown  on  page  275,  and  a  block  of  proper 
weight  was  then  cut  from  the  ingot. 
The  cylinder  thus  formed  was  brought 


ELECTRIC  POWER  AT  NIAGARA. 


273 


to  a  forging  heat,  and  expanded  on  a 
mandril  under  a  14,000  ton  hydraulic 
press.  The  high  degree  of  skill,  and 
the  perfection  of  mechanical  appliances 
required  to  expand  part  of  the  cylinder, 
shown  on  page  275,  to  the  ring,  illus- 
trated on  page  272,  are  evident,  and  re- 
flect much  credit  upon  the  Bethlehem 
Iron  Company.  After  forging,  the  ring 
was  carefully  treated  to  obtain  the  phy- 
sical qualities  desired,  and  was  then 
bored  and  rough-turned  on  a  large 
boring  mill.  It  was  finally  turned  true 
in  the  shops  of  the  Westinghouse 
Electric  &  Manufacturing  Company,  at 
Pittsburg,  Pa. 

Not  only  are  the  physical  properties 
of  the  ring  extraordinary  ;  in  size  it  is 
without  precedent,  and  to  those  inter- 
ested in  the  recent  remarkable  improve- 
ment in  the  quality  of  steel,  and  in  the 
methods  of  working;  it,  the  interest 
which  attaches  to  this  ring,  as  an  ex- 
ample of  the  finished  product  of  the 
Bethlehem  Iron  Company,  is  not  less 
than  that  which  it  derives  from  the  im- 
portant part  which  it  sustains  in  the 
Niagara  installation. 

Why  it  is  necessary  that  these  rings 
should  be  so  strong,  and  that  they 
should  be  so  forged  as  to  eliminate  the 
possibility  of  weakness  in  any  part,  will 
be  better  understood  when  we  consider 
the  speed  at  which  they  revolve,  and 
the  weight  of  the  pole  pieces  and  field 
bobbins  which  they  carry.  The  illus- 
trations on  page  276  show  one  of 
the  field  poles  without  its  winding,  and 
one  of  the  field  poles  with  bobbin  in 
place.  The  poles  are  of  mild  open- 
hearth  steel,  and  were  cast  by  the  Mid- 
vale  Steel  Company.  Their  magnetic 
qualities  have  been  carefully  tested  by 
sample,  and  are  excellent. 

The  field  winding,  which  consists  of 
copper  conductor  of  rectangular  section, 
thoroughly  insulated,  is  contained  in 
ribbed  brass  boxes  or  covers,  one  of 
which  is  well  illustrated  on  page  276. 
The  weight  of  each  pole  piece  with  its 
bobbin  is  2800  Ibs.  The  relation  of  the 
pole  pieces  and  bobbins  to  the  ring  is 
shown  in  the  illustration  on  page  277. 
The  speed  of  the  ring  at  its  periphery 
is  9300  ft.  per  minute  when  making  250 

8-3 


revolutions  per  minute,  and  at  this 
speed  the  centrifugal  force,  due  to  each 
field  pole  and  bobbin,  is  2727  Ibs.  The 
strain  is,  of  course,  a  maximum  at  a 
point  in  the  ring  midway  between  each 
pair  of  adjacent  poles.  The  strain  due 
to  the  mass  of  the  ring  itself  is  2325  Ibs. 
The  total  maximum  strain  in  the  ring 
at  250  revolutions  per  minute  is,  there- 
fore, by  calculation,  5052  Ibs. 

It  is  not  sufficient  that  the  ring  should 
be  simply  strong  enough  to  withstand 
the  centrifugal  force  due  to  the  field 
poles,  bobbins  and  its  own  mass  when 
revolving  at  250  revolutions  per  minute; 
it  must  be  able  to  run  safely  at  a  much 
higher  speed,  for  it  is  conceivable  that, 
should  anything  happen  to  the  appa- 
ratus which  governs  the  turbines,  a 
much  higher  speed  may  be  attained. 
It  was  judged  necessary,  therefore,  to 
so  design  the  machine  that  it  should  be 
safe  when  running  at  a  speed  of  400 
revolutions  per  minute,  and  at  this 
speed  the  centrifugal  force  due  to  each 
pole  piece  and  bobbin  becomes  6500 
Ibs.  The  strains  in  the  ring  have  been, 
as  may  be  supposed,  calculated  with 
great  care,  and  even  at  400  revolutions 
per  minute,  equivalent  to  241  feet  per 
second  at  the  periphery,  the  total  strain 
will  not  exceed  13,000  Ibs.  per  sq.  in. 
As  the  elastic  limit  of  the  material  used 
in  the  rings  is  48,000  pounds,  the  factor 
of  safety  at  this  speed,  which  will  prob- 
ably never  be  realised  in  practice,  is 
nearly  four.  At  a  speed  of  800  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  which  means  482  feet 
per  second,  or  nearly  six  miles  per 
minute  at  the  periphery,  the  ring  would 
burst.  But  it  is^  of  course,  impossible 
that  any  such  speed  could,  under  any 
circumstances,  be  attained  ;  in  fact,  the 
calculations  of  the  designers  of  the 
hydraulic  machinery  show  that  the 
speed  could  in  no  case  exceed  400 
revolutions  per  minute. 

Above  the  driver  in  the  illustration 
on  page  254  are  the  collector  and 
brushes  by  which  the  current  is  con- 
veyed from  the  exciters  to  the  revolving 
field  of  the  generator.  The  conductor 
conveying  the  field  current  comes  from 
the  exciters  through  covered  conduits 
beneath  the  level  of  the  floor,  passes 


274 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


SOLID   INGOT   OF   FLUID   COMPRESSED    STEEL   USED   FOR    MAKING   THE   FORGED   FIELD   RING. 
LENGTH,   197   IN.         DIAMETER,   54   IN.         WEIGHT,    I2O.OOO   LBS. 


through  an  iron  pipe  concealed  in  the 
capstone  of  the  foundation,  up  one  of 
the  hollow  iron  columns  supporting  the 
bridge  or  platform  across  the  machine, 
and  thence,  along  the  bridge,  to  the 
brushes.  From  the  collector  rings  it 
passes  under  the  driver  through  the 
shaft,  and  thence,  along  one  of  the  ribs 
inside  of  the  driver,  to  the  field  bobbins. 
The  collector  rings  are  built  upon  a 
separate  cylindrical  casting  placed  above 
the  driver,  and  securely  fixed  to  the 
hub  of  the  latterby  heavy  screws  through 
a  flange  at  its  base.  The  brush-holder 
rods  are  held  in  place  by  a  heavy  iron 
bracket  encircling  the  casting  below  the 
collector  rings.  This  bracket  rests  upon 
the  bridge  which  spans  the  machine. 

BALANCING  THE  REVOLVING  FIELD. 

The  longitudinal  and  transverse  sec- 
tions of  the  power  house  and  wheel-pit, 


showing  turbines,  shafts  and  genera- 
tors in  place,  reproduced  on  pages 
262  and  263,  illustrate  the  relation 
of  these  elements  in  the  plant  more 
graphically  and  exactly  than  is  pos- 
sible in  a  mere  verbal  description. 
The  turbines  are  so  designed  that 
they  and  the  shaft  and  the  revolv- 
ing part  of  the  dynamo  above  them  are 
supported  upon  the  water  passing 
through  the  wheels.  By  calculation,  the 
force  of  the  water  tending  to  lift  the  shaft 
and  generator  varies  from  about  149,000 
Ibs.  to  about  155,000  Ibs.,  depending 
upon  the  amount  of  water  passing 
through  the  turbines,  which,  in  turn, 
depends  upon  the  amount  of  current 
which  the  generator  is  delivering  to  the 
circuits.  The  weight  of  the  shaft  and 
revolving  part  of  the  generator  is  very 
nearly  152,000  Ibs.  The  difference 
between  this  weight  and  the  upward 


ELECTRIC  POWER  AT  NIAGARA. 


275 


thrust  of  the  water  is  taken  care  of  by 
the  thrust  bearing  located  on  the  third 
gallery  above  the  turbines.  When  the 
upward  thrust  of  the  water  exceeds 
152,000  Ibs.,  the  collars  on  the  steel 
shaft  are  pressed  upward  against  the 
grooves  in  the  bearing  in  which  they 
revolve,  and  when  the  upward  pressure 
is  less  than  152,000  Ibs.  the  collars  are 
drawn  downward  by  gravity  against 
the  grooves  in  the  bearing.  This  press- 
ure, however,  whether  upward  or  down- 
ward, in  direction,  never  exceeds  3500 
Ibs.  in  amount,  and  this,  of  course,  puts 
very  little  work  upon  the  bearing. 

The  entire  revolving  parts  of  each 
unit  of  the  plant,  therefore,  consist- 
ing of  the  turbines,  the  dynamo  field 
and  the  shaft,  166  feet  in  length, 
constitute  a  huge  top,  the  weight 
of  which  is  practically  carried  upon 
the  water  in  the  turbines.  The  bear- 
ings on  the  first  and  second  galleries 
of  the  wheel  pit,  and  the  upper  and 
lower  bearings  in  the  generator,  are 


simply  guides  for  the  shaft,  to  keep  it 
in  a  vertical  position,  while  the  thrust 
bearing  on  the  third  gallery  acts  as  a 
guide,  and  also  carries  the  relatively 
small  difference  between  the  weight  of 
the  revolving  mechanism  and  the  up- 
ward thrust  of  the  water.  The  turbines, 
shaft,  and  generator  field  revolve  at  the 
high  speed  of  250  revolutions  per  min- 
ute, and  it  is  obvious  that  all  of  the 
revolving  parts,  especially  the  heavy 
generator  field,  weighing  about  70,000- 
Ibs.  and  measuring  nearly  12  feet  in 
diameter,  must  be  balanced  with  the 
utmost  accuracy  to  prevent  vibrations 
which  might  become  dangerous. 

The  method  employed  in  balancing 
the  revolving  element  of  the  generators 
is  illustrated  on  page  278.  A  special 
shaft  was  placed  in  the  bearings  of  the 
machine,  and  supported  at  its  lower  end 
by  a  thrust  bearing  into  which  oil  was 
pumped  at  a  pressure  of  about  1000  Ibs. 
per  sq.  in.  This  pressure  was  sufficient 
to  lift  the  weight  of  the  revolving  parts, 


COMPRESSED   STEEL   INGOT   WITH    HOLE   THROUGH.  CENTER,    PREPARATORY   TO   FORGING. 


276 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


and  the  collars  on  the  shaft  were  sepa- 
rated from  the  grooves  of  the  thrust 
bearing  by  a  thin  layer  or  film  of  oil.  A 
small  piece  of  tool  steel  was  set  into  the 
upper  end  of  the  shaft,  a  half  sphere  or 
cup  being  cut  in  its  upper  surface,  and 
in  this  was  placed  a  tempered  steel  ball, 


A  FIELD  POLE  WITH   WINDING  IN  PLACE. 
WEIGHT,   2800  LBS. 

y%  in.  in  diameter.  A  large  eyebolt 
with  a  similar  piece  of  tool  steel,  having 
in  its  lower  surface  a  cup  bearing  similar 
to  that  at  the  top  of  the  shaft,  was 
secured  in  the  tapered  bearing  of  the 
umbrella-shaped  driver,  to  the  periph- 
ery of  which  the  field  ring  is  bolted. 
The  entire  weight  of  the  driver  and  the 
ring  was  thus  supported  upon  the  small 
steel  ball. 

A  casting,  clamped  to  the  shaft, 
served  to  rotate  the  driver  and  ring 
with  the  shaft.  A  section  of  this  cast- 
ing and  of  one  of  the  ribs  of  the  driver 
is  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  steel 
ball,  as  will  be  noted,  was  placed  a  very 
short  distance  above  the  centre  of  grav- 
ity of  the  field  and  driver,  and  under 
these  conditions,  the  driver  and  ring 
being  free  to  rock  while  rotated,  a  defect 
in  balance  was  quickly  shown.  A,s  a 


matter  of  fact,  in  the  case  of  the  first 
generator  the  driver  at  first  assumed  the 
position  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines. 
This  was  corrected  by  riveting  to  the 
driver -a  wrought  iron  plate,  the  weight 
of  this  plate  and  the  distance  from  the 
axle  of  rotation  being  experimentally 
determined  to  obtain  not  only  exact 
static  balance,  but  also  exact  running 
balance. 

The  driver  was  first  balanced  in  this 
manner,  independently.  The  ring  was 
then  bolted  to  the  driver,  and  the  two 
were  balanced  together  as  shown  in  the 
illustration.  It  was  unnecessary  to 
balance  the  combination  of  the  driver, 
ring  and  field  poles  since  the  field  poles 
and  bobbins  were  separately  weighed, 
and  their  weights  adjusted  to  exact 
equality,  while  the  positions  in  which 
they  are  bolted  to  the  ring  are  exactly 
symmetrical  with  reference  to  each  other 
and  to  the  axis  of  rotation. 

ORGANIZATION    OF    APPARATUS    IN 

THE  POWER  HOUSE. 
The  organization  of  apparatus  con- 
stituting the  system  adopted,  that  is, 


A  FIELD  POLE. 


the  inter-relation  and  the  functions  of 
the  generators,  step-up  transformers, 
step-down  transformers,  motors,  corn- 
mutating  machines  and  other  appa- 


ELECTRIC  POWER  AT  NIAGARA. 


277 


ratus>  has  been  described  in  a  general 
way  in  the  early  part  of  this  article.  I 
have  also  explained  the  construction  of 
the  generators, — the  most  important 
unit  of  apparatus  in  the  plant.  It  re- 
mains now  to  describe  the  means 
adopted  for  controlling  the  heavy  cur- 
rents delivered  by  the  generators,  and 
for  delivering  these  currents  to  the 
supply  circuits  which  convey  them  from 
the  power  house  to  the  premises  of  the 
users  of  power. 


number  of  generators  shall  have  in- 
creased from  three  to  thirty  or  twice 
thirty,  the  organization  and  means 
provided  for  operating  them  must  still 
be  symmetrical  and  consistent  in  all 
its  parts.  The  plan  adopted  con- 
templates an  arrangement  in  groups 
of  five  generators  each.  The  switching 
and  regulating  apparatus,  and  the  in- 
dicating and  measuring  instruments, 
are  concentrated  in  a  swithboard  cen- 
trally located  with  reference  to  each 


FIELD   RING   WITH    POLES   AXD   BOBBINS   IN   PLACE. 


In  deciding  upon  a  plan  of  station 
organization,  we  face,  at  the  outstart, 
two  very  serious  conditions  : — First  : — 
The  forces  with  which  we  are  dealing 
are,  in  amount,  far  beyond  the  range 
of  experience.  Second: — The  plan 
adopted  must  be  capable  of  almost  in- 
definite extension  without  radical  modi- 
fication, and  without  involving  loss  of 
symmetry. 

We  are  dealing  with  energy  in  units 
of  5000  horse-power,  developed  under 
conditions  which  are,  in  many  respects, 
without  precedent  ;  and  while,  at  the 
outstart,  there  are  to  be  installed  but 
three  generators,  the  fact  must  be  kept 
in  mind  that  others  will  be  added  to 
the  installation,  and  that,  when  the 


group.  Provision  is  made  for  cross- 
connecting  the  several  groups  to  be 
ultimately  installed  in  this  power  house 
and  in  other  power  houses  which  may 
be  erected  on  both  the  American  and 
Canadian  sides  of  the  river  in  order 
that  continuity  of  service  may  be  doubly 
assured. 

The  switchboard  is  the  centre  from 
which  the  brain  and  hand  of  the  op- 
erator control  the  mighty  forces  of 
Nature  which  are  here  compelled  to  do 
work, — it  is  the  bridge  of  the  ship. 
From  it,  imprisoned  energy,  aggregat- 
ing 25,000  horse-power, — electric  en- 
ergy, eager  to  escape,  seeking  for  the 
smallest  pinhole  in  insulation,  and  con- 
centrating instantly  at  that  pinhole,  if 


278 


CASSIER'S   MAGAZINE. 


found, — must  be  controlled,  combined, 
subdivided  and  directed.  It  is  evidently 
desirable  to  operate  the  generators  in 
parallel,  this  method  tending  to  im- 
prove regulation  of  speed  and  poten- 
tial, insuring  continuity  in  the  delivery 
of  current  to  the  users  of  power,  and 


house,  and  the  latter  referring  to  the 
service  which  will  supply  consumers  in 
Buffalo  and  other  distant  places.  This 
consideration  makes  it  probable  that  it 
will  prove  convenient  and  desirable  to 
operate  the  generators  in  two  sets,  for 
the  following  reason  : — 


BALANCING    - 

.     FOR  DRIVER      . 


WROUGHT  IRON  PLATE 
FOR  COUNTER  BALANCING 


ARRANGEMENT — • 

—  ^-^ 5000  H.P.  ALTERNATOR 

CENTER  OF  GRAVITY 


METHOD   OF   BALANCING  THE   DRIVER   AND   FIELD   RING. 


minimizing  the  necessity  of  opening 
switches  conveying  heavy  currents  of 
high  potential  in  circuits  of  very  con- 
siderable inductance  and  capacity.  But 
it  is  also  evident  that  the  service  will, 
in  the  near  future,  divide  itself  into  two 
classes,  which  we  may  call  ' '  local  serv- 
ice "  and  "long-distance  service," 
the  former  referring  to  the  service 
which  will  supply  consumers  within  a 
radius  of  a  few  miles  from  the  power 


Distribution  of  electricity  at  constant 
potential  is  strictly  analogous  to  the 
methods  commonly  employed  in  sup- 
plying gas  and  water.  Each  consumer 
has  a  small,  independent  circuit  through 
which  he  draws  his  supply  from  the 
distributing  mains,  and  he  may  open  or 
close  this  circuit  without  in  any  way 
interfering  with  the  supply  to  his  neigh- 
bours, provided  the  potential  or  press- 
ure in  the  network  of  mains  is  kept 


ELECTRIC   POWER  AT  NIAGARA. 


279 


TURNING   THE   FIELD   RING   IN  THE   WESTINGHOUSE   SHOPS. 


constant.  For  satisfactory  service,  this 
last  provision  is  a  necessity, — the  po- 
tential in  the  distributing  mains  must 
be  constant.  The  local  circuits  at 
Niagara  are  supplied  direct  from  the 
power  house,  through  feeder  or  supply 
circuits  of  comparatively  short  length, 
and,  consequently,  the  loss  of  potential, 
or  drop,  as  it  is  technically  called,  will, 
in  these  circuits,  not  exceed  one  or  two 
per  cent. 

The  distributing  mains  in  Buffalo, 
however,  will  be  necessarily  supplied 
from  feeders  extending  from  the  power 
house,  a  distance  of  about  twenty  miles, 
and  in  these  feeders,  unless  a  very  high 
potential  be  used,  the  drop  will  vary 
from  a  maximum  of,  say,  five  or  possibly 
ten  per  cent.,  depending  upon  the 
amount  of  copper  in  the  circuits,  down 
to  one- half,  one-fourth  or  one- tenth 
of  these  percentages,  depending  upon 
whether  the  current  transmitted  along 
the  feeders  is  the  full  load  current  for 
which  these  feeders  are  designed,  or 
one- half,  one-fourth  or  one- tenth  of  the 


full  load  current.  It  follows  that  at 
certain  times  during  each  day  the  poten- 
tial delivered  to  the  long-distance 
feeders  must  exceed  that  delivered  to 
the  local  feeders  by  a  not  inconsider- 
able percentage,  and  the  readiest  means 
to  meet  this  condition  is  to  operate  the 
generators  in  two  sets  or  groups,  the 
units  constituting  each  set  working  in 
parallel. 

When  two  or  more  generators  work 
' '  in  parallel, ' '  they  are  so  connected 
that  their  currents  are  delivered  to  a  set 
of  large  conductors,  called  ' '  bus  bars, " 
just  as  two  engines,  belted  to  the  same 
line  shaft,  deliver  the  power  which  they 
develop  to  that  shaft.  By  suitable 
devices,  such  as  friction  clutches  or  fast 
and  loose  pulleys,  either  engine  may  be 
put  into  service,  or  shut  down  without 
stopping  the  line  shaft ;  and,  in -a  simi- 
lar manner,  any  electric  generator  of  a 
group  may  be  made  to  add  its  current 
to  that  of  another  generator  or  group 
operating  in  parallel  with  it,  or  may  be 
shut  down  without  interfering  with  the 


280 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


ONE  OF  THE  GENERATOR  FOUNDATIONS. 


continuity  of  the  supply  of  energy  de- 
livered by  the  group. 

As  an  alternative  to  the  plan  of 
operating  the  generators  in  two  groups, 
they  may  all  be  operated  in  one  group, 
provision  being  made  for  adjusting  the 
potential  in  either  the  local  mains  at 
Niagara,  or  the  distant  mains  in  Buffalo, 
by  special  regulating  devices.  For  a 
limited  number  of  generators  this  latter 
plan  offers  some  advantages,  but,  look- 
ing forward  to  the  time  when  a  dozen 
or  a  score  of  generators  will  be  installed, 
the  method  of  operating  in  two  groups 
appears  preferable. 

In  the  case  of  transmission  to  places 
more  remote  than  Buffalo,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  adopt  special  means  for 
regulating  potential  in  the  distributing 
mains,  at  least  until  the  time  when  im- 
proved methods  of  insulating  circuits 
shall  make  it  practicable  to  emplov  very 
high  potentials.  When  that  time  comes, 
the  drop  in  the  circuits  between  the 
power  house  and  the  city  of  Buffalo  will 
become  so  small  that  we  may  treat  the 


Buffalo  feeders  as  local  circuits  and  can 
supply  them  with  current  from  the  same 
bus  bars  that  are  used  in  supplying 
power  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the 
power  house  ;  and  when  the  practica- 
bility of  commercially  employing  these 
very  high  patentials,  e.  g.  25,000  or 
even  50,000  volts,  is  demonstrated, 
transmission  to  places  more  distant  than 
Buffalo  will  naturally  be  undertaken. 
Here  again  the  second  set  of  bus  bars 
will  be  useful.  The  diagram  on  page  282 
illustrates  the  connections  of  generators, 
generator  switches,  bus  bars,  feeder 
switches  and  local  and  long-distance 
feeder  or  supply  circuits.  To  avoid 
complication  but  two  generators  and 
one  long-distance  and  one  local  feeder 
are  shown.  The  currents  are  conveyed 
from  the  generators  i  and  2,  to  the 
generator  switches,  S,  S",  through  in- 
sulated cables,  each  made  up  of  427 
tinned  wires.  The  aggregate  section  of 
copper  in  each  cable  is  i  sq.  in.  Through 
the  generator  switches  the  currents  from 
the  respective  generators  pass  at  the 


ELECTRIC  POWER   AT  NIAGARA. 


281 


will  of  the  engineer  in  charge,  to  either 
of  the  two  sets  of  bus  bars  A,  B.  Each 
set  consists  of  four  thoroughly  insulated 
copper  conductors,  the  construction  of 
which  will  be  again  referred  to.  The 
switches  are  operated  by  compressed 
air,  controlled  by  levers  mounted  on 
iron  stands  placed  upon  the  platform 
above  the  switchboard  structure  within 
which  the  switches  are  located.  By 
them  any  one  of  the  generators,  or  any 
combination  of  the  five  generators  con- 


the  other  end,  establishing  metallic 
connection  between  the  four  terminals 
in  the  row  c,  and  the  four  terminals  in 
the  row  d.  If  the  two  sets  of  bus 
bars  are  to  be  charged  with  the  same 
potential  we  may  supply  both  from  the 
generator,  i ,  by  closing  both  ends  of  the 
switch  simultaneously.  Similar  con- 
nections are,  of  course,  possible  in  the 
case  of  the  other  generators  and  the 
bus  bars. 

The   feeder   switch    S'  is   similar 


in 


THE   SWITCHBOARD   STRUCTURE. 


stituting  the  group,  may  be  connected 
to  either  set  of  bus  bars. 

Each  switch  has  two  separate  and  in- 
dependent air  cylinders,  by  which  the 
two  ends  of  the  switch  are  indepen- 
dently controlled.  The  construction 
of  the  switch  is  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion on  page  292.  To  charge  the 
bus  bars  A  with  current  from  the 
dynamo,  i,  the  switch  is  closed  at  one 
end,  establishing  connections  between 
four  points  in  the  horizontal  row  of 
terminals,  marked  a,  and  the  four 
points  b.  To  connect  the  dynamo  to 
the  bus  bars  B,  the  switch  is  closed  at 


construction  to  the  dynamo  switches, 
but  the  connections  are  different.  So 
far  as  the  feeders  are  concerned,  it  is 
not  necessary  that  we  should  be  able 
to  connect  them  to  more  than  one  set  of 
bus  bars.  Until  long-distance  trans- 
mission is  begun,  either  set  of  bus  bars 
may  be  used,  or  both  may  be  charged 
from  the  same  generator  or  generators, 
in  which  case  they  will,  of  course,  be 
charged  with  the  same  potential.  When 
additional  generators  are  installed,  and 
long-distance  as  well  as  local  service  is 
undertaken,  as  I  have  said,  it  will  prob- 
ably be  advantageous  to  operate  the 


282 


CASSIER'S  'MAGAZINE. 


J 1 


J         J        J 


J  i  ;        oro ;  ;  ; 


l 


k 


n 


v 

!  i 


DIAGRAM  SHOWING  THE  CONNECTIONS  OF  THE  GENERATORS  WITH 
LOCAL  AND  LONG-DISTANCE   FEEDERS. 


ELECTRIC  POWER  AT  NIAGARA. 


283 


generators  in  two  sets  to  permit  adjust- 
ment of  potential  to  compensate  for 
losses  in  transmission.  The  respective 
local  and  long-distance  supply  circuits 
will  then  be  simply  arranged  for  con- 
nection through  their  switches  to  the 
local  or  long-distance  bus  bars,  as  de- 
sired. 

In  the  diagram  on  page  282,  L  rep- 


TRANSFORMER  HOUSE 


of  circuits  in  the  case  of  simple  two- 
phase  transmission  by  four  wires.  The 
diagram  on  page  282  shows  an  arrange- 
ment of  transformers  by  which  the 
two-phase  currents,  delivered  by  the 
generators,  are  changed  to  three-phase 
currents  in  the  transmitting  circuits, 
and  then  changed  back  to  two-phase 
currents  in  the  local  distributing  cir- 
cuits at  a  distance.  This  method  effects 
a  considerable  economy  in  the  amount 
of  copper  required  for  transmission. 

The  potential  that  will  be  used  in  the 
transmission  circuits  for  long-distance 
work  has  not  been  determined.  For 
transmission  to  Buffalo  it  will  probably 


CANAL 


PLAN   OF   POWER   AND   TRANSFORMER   HOUSES. 


resents  a  supply  circuit  used  for  long- 
distance service,  and  L'  represents  a 
similar  circuit  used  for  local  service. 
In  the  diagram  of  the  long-distance 
circuit,  T  and  T'  are  step- up  trans- 
formers, used  to  increase  the  potential 
for  transmission,  while  T"  and  T'" 
are  step-down  transformers,  located  at 
the  distant  end  of  the  transmission  cir- 
cuit, for  example,  at  Buffalo  or  Tona- 
wanda.  In  the  general  diagram  on 
page  256  is  illustrated  the  arrangement 


not  be  less  than  10,000  volts,  and  not 
more  than  25,000  volts.  For  trans- 
mission to  greater  distances,  still  higher 
potentials  are  contemplated. 

The  illustration  on  page  281  shows 
the  structure  erected  for  the  switchboard 
apparatus.  It  is  of  white  enameled 
brick,  and  is  57  ft.  10  in.  long,  13  ft. 
wide  and  a  little  less  than  8  ft.  in  height. 
It  is  erected  directly  over  the  sub-way, 
as  shown  in  the  floor  plan  on  page  283. 
The  top  of  the  structure  is  of  slate  sup- 


284 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


ported  upon  iron  I-beams,  and  the  plat- 
form'thus  formed  is  surrounded  by  a 
neat  brass  hand-rail.  The  sub-way  be- 
neath the  switchboard  is  spanned  at 
suitable  distances  by  iron  I-beams,  to 
which  the  dynamo  and  feeder  switches 
are  bolted  in  place.  The  cables  passing 
from  the  generators  through  ducts  be- 
neath the  floor  line  are  connected  to  the 
generator  switches,  while  the  outgoing 
cables,  constituting  the  feeder  or  supply 
circuits,  drop  directly  from  the  feeder 
switches  into  the  subway.  Iron  stand- 
ards are  secured  to  each  side  of  the  sub- 
way by  expansion  bolts.  They  are 
placed  at  intervals  of  about  4  ft. ,  and 
adjustable  iron  brackets  set  into  these 
standards  support  the  lead-sheathed  ca- 
bles passing  through  the  sub-way  and 
bridge  to  the  transformer  house  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  canal. 

The  drawing  on  page  283,  showing 
the  floor  plan  of  the  power  house,  bridge 
and  the  transformer  house,  will  make 
clear  the  position  of  the  switchboard 
structure  with  reference  to  the  first  three 
generators  and  the  sub-way.  Additional 
generators  will,  in  due  time,  be  erected 
in  line  beyond  the  generator  marked 
"Dynamo,  No.  3,"  and  the  switch- 
board structure  is  designed  to  accom- 
modate all  instruments  and  switches 
needed  in  connection  with  the  first  five 
generators. 

The  organization  of  the  switchboard 
apparatus  and  the  general  features  of 
the  construction  of  the  essential  elements 
will  be  best  understood  by  reference  to 
the  illustration  on  page  286,  which  is  re- 
produced from  the  official  drawing.  The 
upper  part  of  the  illustration  at  the  read- 
er's right  hand  is  a  front  elevation  of  the 
stands  which  carry  the  instruments  for 
the  several  generators  and  for  the  ex- 
citers, and  also  shows  one  of  the  lever 
stands  for  the  feeder  circuits.  Beneath 
the  floor  line  of  the  switchboard  platform 
is  seen  one  set  of  bus  bars  in  connec- 
tion with  an  end  elevation  of  the  gener- 
ator and  feeder  switches.  A. plan  of 
the  switchboard  platform  is  also  given 
in  the  illustration  on  page  288,  a  part  of 
the  platform  being  cut  away  to  show  a 
plan  of  one  generator  switch  and  one 
feeder  switch.  On  page  286,  again,  is 


shown  a  plan  of  the  rheostat  chamber 
and  sub-way  for  the  cables,  and  just 
above  this,  a  section  through  the  switch- 
board, sub-way  and  rheostat  chamber, 
at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the 
sub-way,  is  given. 

The  essential  elements  of  the  switch- 
board apparatus  are,  — the  generator  and 
feeder  switches,  the  bus  bars,  the 
switching  and  safety  devices  for  the  ex- 
citing currents,  the  rheostats  for  con- 
trolling the  generator  fields,  and  the 
indicating  and  measuring  instruments. 
As  shown  by  the  plans,  the  switches 
and  bus  bars  are  located  within  the 
switchboard  structure.  Upon  the 
switchboard  platform  are  erected  the 
instrument  stands,  one  for  each  gen- 
erator, two  for  the  rotary  transformers, 
and  one  for  the  engine-driven  generator, 
temporarily  used  as  an  exciter,  and  in 
front  of  each  instrument  stand  is  placed 
a  cast-iron  stand,  about  30  inches  in 
height,  carrying  the  levers  which  con- 
trol the  admission  of  air  to  the  switch 
cylinders,  and  a  wheel  by  means  of 
which  the  rheostats  are  controlled. 

Each  of  the  lever  stands  used  for  con- 
trolling the  large  generator  switches 
carries  also  levers  for  opening  and  clos- 
ing the  field  circuit  of  the  correspond- 
ing generator,  and  a  hand  wheel  by 
which  the  rheostat  resistance  in  the 
field  of  the  generator  is  adjusted.  The 
rheostats  are  located  in  a  special  cham- 
ber below  the  floor  line  of  power  house, 
the  face-plates  being  located  in  the  bases 
of  the  instrument  stands.  Connection 
between  the  face-plates  and  resistance 
coils  of  the  rheostats  is  secured  by  insu- 
lated cables  of  suitable  section.  The 
compressed  air  used  in  operating  the 
switches  comes  from  a  compressor  direct, 
driven  by  a  Worthington  water  motor. 
This  compressor  is  located  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  wheel  pit,  and  supplies  air  to 
a  large  cylindrical  reservoir  from  which 
pipes  are  led  to  the  various  switches. 
The  pressure  used  is  125  pounds  per 
square  inch. 

Engineers,  not  familiar  with  the  possi- 
bilities of  electricity,  will  be  impressed 
by  the  fact  that  the  currents  actually 
measured  are  not  the  heavy  currents 
traversing  the  cables  within  the  switch- 


ELECTRIC  PO  WER  A  T  NIA  GAR  A.  285 

^^SAUFORWi* 


286 


CASSIER '  6*  MA  GAZ1NE. 


ELECTRIC  POWER    AT  NIAGARA. 


287 


board  structure,  but  are  derived  cur- 
rents, bearing  a  known  relation  to  the 
heavy  currents  delivered  by  the  gene- 
rators. They  are  small  in  quantity  and 
absolutely  harmless.  The  operator, 
standing  upon  the  switchboard  plat- 
form, cannot  possibly  touch  a  circuit 
which  is  in  the  slightest  degree  danger- 
ous. The  currents  measured  are  ob- 
tained by  means  of  transformers  located 
inside  the  switchboard  structure,  the 
ratio  of  their  winding  being  such  that 
for  every  50  amperes  flowing  in  the 
main  circuit,  a  current  of  I  ampere  is 
supplied  from  the  secondary  of  the 
transformer  to  the  measuring  instru- 
ments. Currents  to  the  respective  volt- 
meters are  supplied  from  transformers, 
the  primaries  of  which  are  connected 
across  the  generator  circuits.  For  the 
wattmeters  both  series  and  shunt  con- 
nections from  the  generator  circuits  are 
needed,  and  these  are  obtained  from  the 
transformers  used  for  the  voltmeters  and 
ammeters. 

To  measure  energy,  current  and  po- 
tential in  each  phase  of  each  generator, 
two  converters,  an  indicating  watt- 
meter, an  ammeter  and  a  voltmeter  are 
employed.  The  energy  required  by 
these  devices  amounts,  as  a  maximum, 
to  about  30  watts — that  is,  ?V  horse- 
power. It  is  an  extraordinary  illustra- 
tion of  the  facility  with  which  electricity 
is  accurately  measured  that  we  should 
be  able  thus  to  determine  energy  vary- , 
ing  from  25  horse-power  to  2500  horse- 
power by  means  of  measuring  devices, 
accurate  throughout  their  range  within 
one  per  cent.,  and  requiring  for  their 
operation  not  more  than  »V  horse- 
power. 

The  instrument  stands  are  boxes  or 
cabinets,  constructed  of  iron  and  mar- 
ble, the  front  of  each,  above  the  pedes- 
tal, being  formed  of  a  single  slab  of 
polished  Italian  marble,  i^  inches 
thick,  30  inches  in  width  and  45  inches 
in  height.  Each  stand  occupies  a  floor 
space  of  38  inches  by  20  inches  and  is 
7  feet  in  height.  Sliding  doors  at  the 
back  give  access  to  the  measuring  in- 
struments. The  marble  front  of  the 
stand  is  pierced  by  six  rectangular 


openings,  and  the  instruments  are  se- 
cured to  the  marble  in  such  a  way  that 
the  front  of  each,  with  its  scale  and  in- 
dex, projects  through  the  marble  to  the 
front  of  the  stand. 

The  engraving  on  page  289  illus- 
trates one  of  the  alternating  current 
ammeters,  as  viewed  from  the  front. 
The  indicating  wattmeter  and  the  volt- 
meter are  similar  in  appearance.  The 
fronts  are  finished  in  oxidised  brass. 
These  instruments,  and  the  integrating 
wattmeters,  used  in  connection  with 
feeder  circuits  (not  located  upon  the 
switchboard  platform),  comprise  a  re- 
markable group  of  measuring  instru- 
ments recently  invented  and  designed 
by  Mr.  Oliver  B.  Shallenberger,  Con- 
sulting Electrician  of  the  Westinghouse 
Company.  As  they  were  primarily  de- 
signed with  special  reference  to  the 
Niagara  installation,  they  are  desig- 
nated the  ' '  Niagara  type ' '  by  the 
Westinghouse  Company.  Their  sphere 
of  usefulness,  however,  will  be  as  wide 
as  the  applications  of  alternating  cur- 
rents. They  depend  for  their  action 
upon  the  induction  of  currents  jn  a 
movable  closed  secondary  circuit,  and 
all  operate  to  a  certain  extent  upon  the 
same  general  principles,  specifically  de- 
veloped in  each  case  to  attain  the  ob- 
ject desired.  They  are  extremely  sim- 
ple in  construction,  the  parts  are  few 
and  comparatively  massive,  and  yet 
the  instruments  are  .capable  of  giving 
very  accurate  results.  They  are  guar- 
anteed by  the  Westinghouse  Company 
to  be  correct  within  one  per  cent. 

In  each  instrument  a  thin  aluminium 
disc,  stiffened  by  a  flange  around  its 
edge,  constitutes  the  movable  element, 
in  which  eddy  currents  are  induced  by 
currents  traversing  coils  placed  above 
and  below  it.  The  relation  of  the  in- 
duced currents  in  the  disc  and  the  in- 
ducing currents  in  the  coils  is  such  that 
the  disc  tends  to  rotate.  In  the  watt- 
meter the  tendency  is  proportional  to  a 
function  of  the  energy  traversing  the 
inducing  circuits,  and  these  currents 
come  from  a  converter  located  beneath 
the  platform,  and,  in  turn,  are  propor- 
tional to  the  energy  in  one  of  the  gen- 


288 


CASSIER'S    MAGAZINE. 


ELECTRIC  POWER   AT  NIAGARA. 


289 


erator  circuits,  which  is  the  energy  to 
be  measured.  The  tendency  to  rotate 
is  resisted  by  a  torsion  spring,  and  the 
currents  turn  the  disc,  overcoming  the 
resistance  of  the  spring  through  a  cer- 
tain angle.  This  angle  depends  upon 
the  relative  strength  of  the  twisting 
moment,  due  to  the  currents  and  the 
resisting  force  of  the  spring,  and  the 
position  of  the  disc,  with  reference  to 
its  position  when  no  current  traverses 
the  coils,  becomes  a  measure  of  the 
energy.  The  scale  is  attached  to  the 
circumference  of  the  disc,  and  depends 
from  it  much  as  the  field  ring  of  the 
generator  depends  from  the  driver. 
This  scale  is  carried  with  the  disc,  from 
its  zero  position,  through  an  angle  de- 
pending upon  the  current  measured, 
and  the  instrument  being  once  carefully 
compared  with  a  standard  and  the  scale 
properly  marked,  the  energy  can  be 
determined  by  taking  the  reading  of 
this  scale  opposite  the  index,  which  is 
always  fixed  in  position.  In  the  illus- 
tration on  this  page  the  index  will  be 
seen  in  the  centre  of  the  rectangular 
glass  window,  and,  immediately  behind 
it,  an  arc  of  the  circular  scale. 

The  ammeter,  which  measures  the 
strength  of  the  current,  and  the  volt- 
meter, which  measures  the  potential, 
resemble  the  indicating  wattmeter  in 
the  fact  that  they  are  based  upon  the 
same  principles,  and  they  are  also  sim- 
ilar in  general  features  of  construction. 
The  methods  employed  to  obtain  the 
proper  phase  relations  of  the  currents 
in  the  inducing  circuits  and  in  the  disc 
are  very  ingenious  and,  to  the  elec- 
trician, interesting.  But  this  is  not  the 
place  to  describe  them  in  detail. 

The  ammeters,  which  measure  the 
currents  in  the  fields  of  the  generators, 
were  furnished  by  the  Weston  Instru- 
ment Company,  of  Newark,  N.  J.,  and 
are  of  their  well-known  type,  in  which 
the  current  actually  measured  by  the 
instrument  is  that  which  flows  through 
a  circuit  connected  in  shunt  to  a  resist- 
ance which  is  placed  in  the  circuit  trav- 
ersed by  the  current  to  be  measured. 

All  of  the  currents  measured  by  the 
instruments  located  in  the  instrument 
stand  are  supplied  through  insulated 


conductors  of  small  section,  which  con- 
vey the  small  derived  currents  from 
converters  or  from  the  terminals  of  re- 
sistances placed  beneath  the  switch- 
board platform.  Each  generator  in- 
strument stand  carries,  in  addition  to 
the  instruments  already  described,  a 
phase  indicator,  by  means  of  which  the 
attendant  or  the  engineer  in  charge, 
who  desires  to  connect  a  generator  in 
parallel  with  another  generator  or  group 
of  generators,  determines  the  proper 
time  for  closing  the  switch. 

The  instruments  provided  for  the 
stands  belonging  to  the  rotary  trans- 
formers used  as  exciters,  are  not  the 


AN   ALTERNATING    CURRENT   AMMETER,    NIAGARA 
TYPE. 


same  as  those  provided  for  the  gener- 
ator instrument  stands,  and  they  also 
differ  from  the  instruments  provided  for 
the  stand  belonging  to  the  temporary 
engine-driven  exciter.  They  comprise 
two  Shallenberger  alternating- current 
ammeters  of  the  Niagara  type  and  a 
direct-current  ammeter  and  voltmeter 
made  by  the  Weston  Instrument  Com- 
pany. A  number  of  plug  contacts  are 
provided,  by  means  of  which  the  ratio 
of  conversion  of  the  static  transformers 
which  supply  current  to  the  rotary 
transformers  may  be  adjusted. 

The  construction  of  the  bus  bars  is, 
in  several  respects,  remarkable,  the 
magnitude  of  the  quantities  dealt  with 
again  making  it  necessary  to  devise 
methods  of  construction  outside  the 
range  of  experience.  As  has  been  said, 
two  sets  of  bus  bars  are  provided,  but  it 


9-3 


290 


GASSIER 'S   MAGAZINE. 


is,  of  course,  conceivable  that  under 
certain  circumstances  it  may  be  desir- 
able to  cut  one  set  out  of  service  and 
control  the  output  of  five  generators 
through  the  other  set.  By  arranging 
the  generator  switches  and  feeder 
switches  as  shown  in  the  illustration,  in 
such  a  way  that  the  former,  through 
.which  current  is  delivered  to  the  bus 
bars,  alternate  with  the  latter,  through 
which  current  is  drawn  from  the  bus 
bars,  the  maximum  current  which  it  is 
necessary  to  convey  through  any  sec- 
tion of  the  bus  bars  becomes  that  sup- 
plied by  three  generators.  This  is 
equivalent  in  each  bar  to  about  3000 
amperes,  and,  assuming  a  current  den- 
sity of  1000  amperes  per  sq.  in.,  would 
require  a  section  of  about  3  sq.  in.  in 
the  bus  bar.  The  potential  of  the  cur- 
rents may  be  as  high  as  2400  volts. 

A  short-circuit  might  obviously  be 
very  dangerous,  and  this  fact,  in  con- 
nection with  the  fact  that  at  certain 
times  the  atmosphere  of  the  power 
house  is  liable  to  carry  a  considerable 
amount  of  moisture,  ready  to  be  pre- 
cipitated upon  metallic  surfaces,  points 
to  the  desirability  of  insulating  the 
bars.  To  insulate  them  in  the  most 
satisfactory  manner,  rounded  surfaces 
are  necessary,  but  in  a  round  solid 
conductor,  3  square  inches  in  section, 
nearly  2  inches  in  diameter,  two 
other  difficulties  must  be  faced  :  First, 
the  surface  from  which  the  heat,  due  to 
resistance,  must  be  radiated,  is  small 
as  compared  with  that  obtained  by  us- 
ing flat  bars  or  straps  of  equal  section  ; 
and,  second,  an  alternating  current  in 
such  a  conductor  will  not  distribute  it- 
self uniformly,  but  will  seek  the  surface, 
leaving  the  copper  at  the  centre  re- 
latively idle  and  ineffective. 

These  difficulties  have  been  success- 
fully overcome  by  the  construction 
adopted.  From  the  middle  each  bar 
tapers  toward  the  ends.  The  middle 
section  consists  of  a  copper  tube 
of  about  3  inches  outside  diameter 
and  2  inches  inside  diameter.  Into 
this,  at  either  end  is  screwed  a  tube, 
the  outside  diameter  of  which  is  ap- 
proximately 2  inches,  while  its  inside 
diameter  is  about  i-J-  in.  Into  the  other 


ends  of  each  of  these  tubes,  in  like 
manner,  a  copper  rod  i^  inch  in 
diameter  is  screwed.  The  offsets  or 
connections  from  which  short  lengths 
of  cable  convey  current  to  or  from  the 
several  switches,  are  clamped  to  the 
bar  thus  formed,  all  surfaces  being 
rounded.  The  entire  bar  with  offsets 
is  then  insulated  with  very  high- class 
rubber  insulation.  These  bars  were  con- 
structed by  the  Brown  &  Sharpe  Manu- 
facturing Company,  of  Providence,  R. 
I.,  U.  S.  A.,  according  to  the  designs 
of  the  Westinghouse  Company,  and 
were  insulated  by  the  India  Rubber  and 
Gutta-Percha  Insulating  Company,  of 
New  York,  the  method  employed  being 
that  covered  by  the  Habirshaw  patents. 
The  insulation  consists  of  alternate 
layers  of  pure  Para  gum  and  vulcanized 
rubber,  two  layers  of  each  being  used, 
and  the  outer  layer  of  vulcanized  rubber 
protected  by  a  special  braided  covering 
chemically  treated  to  make  it  non-com- 
bustible. Similar  insulation  is  used  for 
the  cables  between  the  generators  and 
the  switches  and  for  the  connections 
between  the  bus  bars  and  switches. 

A  section  of  the  Habirshaw  cable  is  re- 
produced on  the  opposite  page.  The 
illustration  is  very  nearly  the  exact  size 
of  the  cable.  The  m akers  guarantee  that 
the  insulation  of  cables  and  bus  bars, 
erected  in  place,  shall  stand  an  alternat- 
ing current  potential  of  10,000  effective 
volts  between  copper  and  earth.  Samples 
submitted  and  tested  in  the  laboratory 
of  the  Westinghouse  Company  suc- 
cessfully resisted  the  application  of 
potentials  exceeding  40,000  volts. 

The  calculated  losses  in  a  set  of  four 
bus  bars  conveying  the  full  output  of 
five  generators,  25,000  electrical  horse- 
power, are  less  than  10  horse-power. 
The  radiating  surface  is,  of  course,  con- 
siderably greater  than  it  would  be  in 
the  case  of  solid  circular  bars  of  equal 
section.  At  the  ends  of  the  bars, 
where  the  section  is  about  i  sq.  in., 
the  current  is  that  coming  from  .one 
generator  only,  and  in  a  bar  of  this 
section  the  tendency  of  the  current  to 
seek  the  surface  is  negligible.  In  that 
part  of  the  bar  which  has  an  outside 
diameter  of  2  inches  the  current  con- 


ELECTRIC  POWER  AT  NIAGARA. 


291 


veyed  may  be  that  coming  from  two 
generators,  and  the  tendency  to  seek 
the  surface  would  be  appreciable  in  a 
solid  circular  conductor  of  equal  section, 
while  in  that  part  of  the  bar  which  is  3 
inches  in  diameter  and  which  may 
be  called  upon  to  convey  current  from 
three  dynamos,  it  would  be  very  con- 
siderable. The  use  of  the  tubes  in- 
stead of  solid  bars  gets  rid  of  the  idle 
copper  at  the  centre  of  the  latter,  and 
at  the  same  time  increases  the  ratio  of 
radiating  surface  to  section  of  con- 
ductor. 

The  construction  of  suitable  switch- 
ing devices  for  circuits  conveying  5000 
horse-power  at  a  potential  of  2000  volts 
is  a  serious  problem.  To  be  sure,  the 
dynamos  will  be  operated  in  parallel, 
and  by  proper  adjustment  of  the  field 
charges  of  the  generators  and  the  gates 
controlling  the  turbines,  the  current 
traversing  the  dynamo  switch  at  the 
moment  of  opening  or  closing  the  cir- 
cuit can  be  reduced  within  moderate 
limits.  But  there  is  always  the  chance 
that  something  may  go  wrong ;  the 
operative  may  make  a  mistake,  or 
something  else  may  happen,  and  it  was, 
therefore,  deemed  necessary  to  con- 
struct a  switch  capable  of  opening  with- 
out damage  to  itself  or  other  apparatus, 
circuits  conveying  5000  horse-power. 
The  Westinghouse  Company  accord- 
ingly inaugurated  a  series  of  experi- 
ments, and  detailed  several  expert 
engineers  to  thoroughly  study  the 
subject.  The  result  of  their  work  is 
illustrated  on  page  292.  The  oppor- 
tunity has  not  yet  been  afforded  to 
thoroughly  test  this  switch  in  commer- 
cial service,  but  shop  tests,  carried  out 
under  conditions  approximating  to  those 
which  will  be  met  in  practical  operation 
of  the  plant  at  Niagara,  indicate  that  it 
is  capable  of  switching  very  heavy  cur- 
rents without  damage  to  itself,  and 
without  dangerous  rise  of  potential. 

Current  for  exciting  the  fields  of  the 
generators  is  obtained  directly  from 
rotary  transformers,  which,  in  turn,  are 
supplied  with  alternating  current  from 
the  generators,  static  transformers  being 
interposed  to  reduce  the  potential. 
During  the  period  of  construction  ex- 


citing current  is  also  derived,  when 
necessary,  from  a  75  kilowatt  direct 
current  generator  driven  direct  by  a 
Westinghouse  compound  engine.  This 
generator  and  engine,  together  with  the 
boiler  plant  for  the  latter,  are  located  in 
a  small  temporary  building  at  a  distance 
of  about  200  yards  from  the  power 
house.  The  engraving  on  page  293 
illustrates  one  of  the  two  rotary  trans- 
formers installed,  and  their  location  in 
the  power  house  is  indicated  in  the 
floor  plan  on  page  283.  These  trans- 
formers are  of  200  kilowatts  output 
each. 

As  will  be  seen  in  the  illustration  of 


A  SECTION   OF  THE   HABIRSHAW   CABLE. 

the  complete  machine,  on  page  259, 
the  shaft  carries  a  commutator  at 
one  end  of  the  armature  and  a 
four-ring  collector  at  the  opposite 
end.  Alternating  current,  at  about  1 25 
volts  potential,  is  delivered  to  the  col- 
lector from  the  secondary  terminals  of 
the  static  transformers,  one  of  which  is 
illustrated  on  page  294.  From  the 
commutator  end  of  the  rotary  trans- 
former, direct  current,  at  a  potential 
approximating  175  volts,  is  delivered 
to  the  fields  of  the  generators,  the  field 
rheostats  being  interposed  in  these  cir- 
cuits to  permit  adjustment  of  the  current 
flowing  in  each  field. 

The  armature  winding  is  of  the 
closed  circuit  type,  and  each  of  the  ring 
collectors  is  cc-nnected  to  a  certain 
point  in  the  same  winding  from  which 
current  is  delivered  to  the  commutator. 
The  machine,  in  operation,  runs  as;a 


292 


GASSIER 'S  MAGAZINE. 


synchronous  motor,  driven  by  the  two- 
phase  alternating  current,  and  delivers 
from  the  commutator  continuous  cur- 
rent, just  as  it  would  do  were  it  driven 
as  a  generaror  by  a  turbine  or  an  en- 
gine. The  fly-wheel  at  the  end  of  the 
shaft  is  used  to  give  steadiness  of  speed 
and  to  prevent  what  is  sometimes  called 
"pumping;"  that  is  to  say,  unequal 
angular  velocity  at  successive  stages  in 
a  revolution  of  the  armature,  caused  by 
the  flow  of  idle  current  between  the 
generator  and  the  rotary  transformer. 


which   the  water   circulates   are  shown 
on  page  295. 

Before  the  generators  were  erected  in 
the  shops  of  the  Westinghouse  Electric 
and  Manufacturing  Company,  at  Pitts- 
burgh, careful  tests  were  made  of  the 
materials  used  in  the  construction  of 
the  various  elements  of  the  machines. 
Of  these,  the  tests  of  the  physical  prop- 
erties of  the  shaft,  field  ring  and  driver 
have  been  referred  to.  The  special 
means  adopted  for  balancing  the  re- 
volving parts  of  the  generator  have  also 


ONK    OF    THK    MAIX    S WITCH KS. 


Two  static  transformers,  each  capable 
of  delivering  100  kilowatts  each,  are 
used  to  supply  alternating  current 
to  each  rotary  transformer.  They  are 
placed  in  cylindrical  boxes  of  boiler 
iron,  and  are  immersed  in  oil.  This 
secures  an  extremely  thorough  insula- 
tion. The  oil  is  kept  cool  by  water, 
which  circulates  through  a  spiral  of  gal- 
vanized iron  pipe,  fitting  closely  to  the 
inside  of  the  cylindrical  box.  Each  box 
is  provided  with  an  oil  gauge  by  which 
the  height  of  oil  may  be  determined. 
Provision  is  made  for  readily  drawing 
off  the  oil  at  the  bottom  of  the  box  in 
case  of  necessity.  The  transformer, 
the  box,  and  the  spiral  of  pipe  through 


been   described.      Among   other  tests, 
the  following  are  of  especial  interest  : 

TESTS  OF  THE  MAGNETIC  QUALITIES 
OF  THE  FIELD  RING. 

Two  samples  of  steel,  cut  from  the 
edge  of  the  rough-forged  ring  before  it 
was  turned,  were  tested  by  the  per- 
meameter  method  to  obtain  what  is 
technically  known  as  the  B-H  curve  ; 
that  is,  the  ratio  of  induction  to  mag- 
netizing force  for  various  values  of  the 
latter.  The  B-H  curve  was  also  deter- 
mined by  a  modification  of  the  so-called 
"  ring  method,"  the  entire  field  ring 
being  used  for  this  purpose.  This  very 
beautiful  and  interesting  experiment 


ELECTRIC  POWER  AT  NIAGARA. 


293 


o 


A   200   KILOWATT   ROTARY   TRANSFORMER   USED    AS   AN   EXCITKR. 


was  suggested  by  Mr.  Chas.  F.  Scott, 
electrician  of  the  Westinghouse  Electric 
and  Manufacturing  Company,  and  car- 
ried out  under  his  direction. 

All  the  measurements  are  illustrated 
graphically  in  the  chart  on  page  297. 
Curves  A  and  B.  are  respectively  the 
B-H  curves  for  wrought-iron  and  cast- 
iron,  as  determined  by  Dr.  John  Hop- 


The  tests  by  the  ring  method  indi- 
cate higher  values  of  the  induction  for 
moderate  magnetizing  forces  than  were 
obtained  by  the  permeameter.  The  for- 
mer is  the  more  reliable  method,  and 
curve  H  undoubtedly  represents  very 
closely  the  true  relation  of  induction 
and  magnetizing  force  in  the  field  ring 
of  the  first  generator.  The  permeability 


ARMATURE   OF   THE   ROTARY   TRANSFORMER. 


kinson  of  London,  and  are  here  given 
for  purposes  of  comparison.  Curve  C 
is  the  B-H  curve  for  nickel,  as  deter- 
mined by  Prof.  J.  A.  Ewing.  Curves  D 
and  E  are  determined  by  permeameter 
from  samples  cut  from  the  edge  of  the 
ring.  Curve  F  was  determined  by  the 
ring  method,  using  the  entire  field  ring. 
The  very  high  values  of  the  induction, 
for  all  except  very  low  magnetizing 
forces,  are  remarkable. 


of  the  field  ring  is,  therefore,  consider- 
ably higher  than  that  of  standard 
wrought  iron. 

For  the  purpose  of  balancing  the 
driver  and  field  ring,  and  to  make 
mechanical  and  electrical  tests  as  com- 
plete as  was  practicable  in  the  shops 
where  no  5000  horse-power  engine  was 
available  to  drive  the  generators  under 
full  load,  each  machine  was  erected  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  weight  of  the 


294 


CASSIER'S   MAGAZINE. 


revolving  element  was  carried  upon  a 
collar  or  thrust  bearing  at  the  bottom  of 
the  shaft.  Into  this  bearing  oil  was 
forced  by  a  pump,  at  a  pressure  approxi- 
mating i ooo  pounds  per  square  inch,  the 
result  being  that  the  collars  on  the  shaft 
and  the  corresponding  grooves  in  the 
bearing  were  thoroughly  lubricated. 
The  oil  was  kept  in  circulation  so  that 
it  might  not  become  excessively  heated. 
That  the  friction  in  the  bearing  was 
reduced  within  very  moderate  limits 
was  demonstrated  during  some  of  the 
later  tests,  when,  the  driving  belt 
coming  off  the  pulley  suddenly  when 
the  machine  was  running  at  about  250 


A   IOO   KILOWATT   TRANSFORMER. 

revolutions  per  minute,  the  field  con- 
tinued to  revolve  for  thirty-nine  min- 
utes by  reason  of  its  own  inertia. 

DETERMINATION  OF  THE  POTENTIAL 
CURVE. 

As  is  now  pretty  well  understood  by 
those  who  are  in  any  way  interested  in 
engineering,  the  potential  at  the  ter- 
minak  of  an  alternating  current  gener- 
ator varies  from  zero  to  a  positive  max- 


imum value,  then  to  zero,  then  to  a  • 
negative  maximum  value,  and  then  to 
zero  again,  this  cycle  being  continu- 
ously and  rapidly  repeated,  in  the  case 
of  the  Niagara  generators  twenty-five 
times  per  second.  One  half  of  such  a 
cycle  is  graphically  represented  by  the 
chart  on  page  298,  in  which  the  solid 
line  is  the  curve  of  potential  at  the  ter- 
minals of  the  first  generator,  as  experi- 
mentally determined.  The  dotted  line 
is  a  sine  curve,  representing  an  electro- 
motive force  of  equal  effective  value. 
Horizontal  distances,  measured  along 
the  base  or  zero  line,  represent  time, 
while  the  vertical  distances,  measured 
from  the  base  line  to  the  potential  curve 
B,  represent  difference  of  potential  at 
the  generator  terminals.  At  any  given 
instant,  represented  by  a  certain  point 
on  the  base  line,  the  'difference  of  po- 
tential is  proportional  to  the  vertical 
distance  from  that  point  to  the  curve. 

In  the  determination  of  the  form  of 
the  potential  curve  at  the  terminals  of 
the  first  Niagara  generator,  a  method, 
suggested  by  Mr.  B.  G.  Lamme,  of  the 
engineering  staff  of  the  Westinghouse 
Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company, 
was  adopted,  and  carried  out  as  follows: 
The  machine  being  set  up,  as  above 
described,  a  steel  cable  was  secured  to 
the  outside  of  the  field  ring,  about 
which  it  was  wound  to  the  extent  of  a 
half-dozen  turns.  The  free  end  of  the 
cable  was  then  secured  to  a  vertical 
shaft  placed  in  a  boring  mill.  The  lat- 
ter, being  revolved  at  slow  speed,  the 
cable  was  wound  upon  the  shaft,  and 
the  field  of  the  generator  was  slowly 
revolved  as  the  cable  unwound  from 
the  field  ring.  In  this  way  an  ex- 
tremely slow  speed  (about  one  revolu- 
tion in  five  minutes,  or  one  cycle  in 
fifty  seconds)  was  obtained. 

A  field  charge  which,  at  250  revolu- 
tions per  minute,  would  induce  an  elec- 
tro-motive force  of  2500  volts  in  the 
armature,  would,  at  this  speed,  induce 
about  2  volts  in  the  armature  circuits. 
Voltmeters,  capable  of  reading  accur- 
ately to  TO'¥  of  a  volt,  were  connected 
directly  across  the  terminals  of  the  ar- 
mature, and,  as  the  field  revolved, 
readings  were  taken  at  intervals  of  three 


ELECTRIC  POWER   A  7^  NIAGARA. 


295 


seconds,  these  intervals  being  timed  by 
an  observer,  while  two  others  read  the 
voltmeters,  and  two  assistants  recorded 
the  readings.  This  test  was  repeated 
many  times  with  very  close  agreement 
in  the  results.  It  is  due  to  Mr.  Scott, 
Mr.  Lamme  and  Mr.  McLaren,  of  the 
technical  staff  of  the  Westinghouse 
Company,  to  say  that  the  results,  when 
plotted  to  the  same  scale  as  the  theo- 


ature  conductors,  the  exciting  current 
in  the  field  winding,  and  eddy  currents 
which  may  be  set  up  in  the  armature 
conductors,  in  the  core  of  the  armature, 
in  the  field  poles  and  in  the  field  bob- 
bins. The  magnetic  losses  are  those  due 
to  the  magnetization  of  the  core  of  the 
armature,  which  is,  of  course,  alternat- 
ing in  sign,  and  to  fluctuations  in  the 
magnetization  of  the  field.  Not  all  of 


DETAILS   OF    THE    TOO    KILOWATT    STEP-DOWN    TRANSFORMER. 


retical  curve  which  they  calculated  be- 
fore the  test  was  made,  can  scarcely 
be  distinguished  from  the  actual  curve 
determined  by  experiment. 

By  the  efficiency  of  the  generator  we 
mean  the  ratio  of  electrical  output  to 
mechanical  input ;  that  is  to  say,  the 
quotient  obtained  by  dividing  the 
amount  of  energy  delivered  to  the  cir- 
cuits by  the  generator,  by  the  energy 
delivered  to  the  shaft  of  the  generator 
at  the  top  of  the  long  shaft  which  con- 
nects the  generator  and  the  turbine.  This 
quotient  is  expressed  as  a  percentage  of 
the  input.  The  difference  between  the 
input  and  output  of  energy  is  repre- 
sented by  the  various  losses  in  the 
generator. 

"-~*These  losses  are  mechanical,  elec- 
trical -and  magnetic.  The  mechanical 
losses  are  those  due  to  air  friction  of  the 
revolving  parts  of  the  generator,  and 
the  friction  of  the  two  bearings  which 
guide  the  generator  shaft.  The  elec- 
trical losses  are  those  due  to  the  main 
or  primary  current  traversing  the  arm- 


these  various  losses  can  with  conveni- 
ence or  accuracy  be  segregated,  but  fortu- 
nately, -practically  all  that  are  of  special 
importance  can  be  measured.  Tests 
were,  therefore,  made  at  the  Westing- 
house  factory  which  determined  the 
efficiency  of  each  machine  with  a  very 
fair  degree  of  accuracy.  They  were 
made  with  great  care,  .and  in  the 
case  of  the  first  generator  all  important 
measurements  were  repeated  many 
times.  This  is  not  the  place  for  a  com- 
plete statement  and  discussion  of  the 
tests  made,  which,  in  itself,  would  be  as 
long  as  this  entire  article,  but  the 
methods  employed  and  the  results  ob- 
tained may  be  briefly  summarized. 

As  the  generator  was  erected  in  the 
shops,  the  revolving  element  was  sus- 
tained, as  already  stated,  by  a  collar  or 
thrust  bearing.  A  direct  current  motor, 
capable  of  delivering  200  horse-power, 
was  used  to  drive  the  generator,  the 
motor  being  turned  upon  its  side,  so 
that  the  shaft,  supported  upon  a  thrust 
bearing,  was  vertical,  and,  therefore, 


296 


GASSIER' S  MAGAZINE. 


THE   AMERICAN   FALLS    AT   NIAGARA. 


ELECTRIC    POWER  AT  NIAGARA. 


297 


parallel  to  the  shaft  of  the  generator. 
The  field  of  the  direct  current  motor 
was  independently  excited,  and  read- 
ings of  the  current  and  potential,  de- 
livered to  its  armature  from  a  direct 
current  generator,  driven  by  an  engine, 
were  taken  in  a  series  of  tests,  which 
were  repeated  several  times  during  a 
period  of  about  two  weeks.  The  results 
show  that  when  the  field  of  the  gene- 
rator was  not  charged  by  exciting  cur- 
rent, it  was  necessary  to  deliver  to  the 
motor  76  horse-power  to  drive  the 


what  this  belt  friction,  and  the  increased 
friction  in  the  bearings,  due  to  tightness 
of  the  belt,  amounted  to  could  not  be 
easily  determined,  nor  was  any  attempt 
made  to  segregate  the  loss  in  the  thrust 
bearing  from  the  other  losses. 

This  loss  in  the  thrust  bearing  is  not 
properly  chargeable  to  the  generator, 
since  the  machines,  as  erected  at 
Niagara,  have  no  thrust  bearing  above 
the  point  in  the  shaft  where  the  power 
is  delivered  to  the  generator.  It  can 
safely  be  said,  therefore,  that  at  Niagara 


1000 


10   20   30  .40   50    60   70    80   90  100  110  120  130  140  150 160  170  180 190  200  210  220  230  240  250-260  270  280  290  300  310  320  330  340    0 
CHART   SHOWING   THE   MAGNETIC   QUALITIES  OF   THE   FIELD   RING. 


generator  field  at  a  speed  of  250  revolu- 
tions per  minute.  The  belt  connecting 
motor  and  generator  being  taken  off,  26 
electrical  horse-power  were  required  to 
drive  the  motor  at  the  same  speed  as 
before.  The  difference  between  these 
two  quantities,  or  50  horse-power, 
represents  the  mechanical  friction  in  the 
generator,  made  up  of  air  friction,  the 
friction  of  the  two  bearings  which  guide 
the  shaft,  the  friction  of  the  step-up  or 
thrust  bearing  at  the  bottom  of  the 
shaft,  and  also  the  loss  in  the  belt,  which 
was  necessarily  kept  very  tight.  Just 


the  total  mechanical  losses  in  the  gene- 
rator will  be  less  than  50  horse-power, 
— that  is,  less  than  one  per  cent,  of  the 
power  required  to  drive  them. 

The  determination  of  the  amount  of 
energy  represented  by  the  current 
which  excites  the  field  of  the  generator 
is  easily  made.  The  method  employed 
was  to  charge  the  field,  beginning  with 
a  very  small  current,  and  increase 
this  by  successive  steps  until  the  poten- 
tial at  the  terminals  of  the  armature,  at 
a  speed  of  250  revolutions  per  minute, 
approximated  3000  volts,  taking  at  each 


298 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


step  simultaneous  Teachings  of  the  cur- 
rent in  the  field,  the  potential  at  the 
field  terminals,  and  the  potential  at  the 
armature  terminals.  The  field  current 
was  then  gradually  reduced,  simultane- 
ous measurements  being  taken  as 
before  of  the  current  in  the  field,  the 
potential  at  the  field  terminals,  and  the 
potential  at  the  armature  terminals.  In 
this  way  the  field  current  required  to 
induce  in  the  armature,  without  load, 
any  given  electromotive  force  not  less 
than  500  volts  and  not  greater  than  3000 


the  field  current  in  each  generator  under 
full  load  will  in  no  case  exceed  15  horse- 
power. 

The  next  loss  to  be  determined  is 
that  due  to  the  magnetization  of  the 
armature  core.  This  is  made  up  of  two 
factors,  but  for  our  purpose,  these  need 
not  be  differentiated  from  each  other. 
The  test  was  made  as  follows  :  The 
generator  being  driven  at  a  speed  of 
250  revolutions  per  minute  by  the  di- 
rect current  motor,  measurements  of 
the  electric  energy  delivered  to  the 


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-NIAGARA  QENER 
-SINUSOID      | 

ATO 

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1  1 

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CJ 


15° 


45°  60°  75°  .90°  105°  120°  135°  150° 

THE   POTENTIAL   CURVE  FOR   ONE  OF   THE  GENERATORS. 


165° 


volts,  was  determined.  From  this  the 
field  current  which  corresponds  to  any 
armature  potential  when  the  generator 
is  loaded, — that  is,  when  the  armature 
is  delivering  current, — can  be  deter- 
mined with  close  accuracy  by  calcula- 
tion. 

With  some  types  of  machines  this 
would  not  be  so  easily  done,  but  in  these 
generators  the  relations  existing  be- 
tween the  armature  and  field  are  similar 
to  those  which  exist  in  many  of  the 
large  generators  employed  in  street  rail- 
way service,  and  in  making  the  calcula- 
tion, therefore,  we  are  not  far  removed 
from  the  safe  basis  of  experimental  fact. 
In  this  way  it  was  determined  that  under 
conditions  which  will  exist  at  Niagara, 


latter  were  made  coincidently  with 
measurements  of  the  potential  at  the 
terminals  of  the  generator  armature.  As 
the  current  in  the  field  of  the  generator 
is  varied,  by  adjusting  resistance  in  its 
circuit,  the  magnetization  of  the  arm- 
ature, of  course,  varies,  and  the  poten- 
tial at  its  terminals  is  a  measure  of  the 
magnetization,  or,  more  strictly,  induc- 
tion in  the  armature  core. 

As  the  magnetization  increases,  more 
power  is  required  to  revolve  the  field, 
the  difference  in  the  power  delivered  by 
the  motor  to  the  generator  for  any 
given  potential  at  the  armature  termi- 
nals (that  is,  for  any  given  degree  of 
magnetization),  and  the  power  required 
to  drive  the  field  at  the  same  speed  with 


DR.  COLEMAN  SELLERS,  one  of  the  best 
known  engineers  on  both  sides  of  the  At- 
lantic, is  the  consulting  engineer  of  the 
Cataract  Construction  Company,  and  is  also 
president  and  chief  engineer  of  the  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Company. 


DE  COURCY  MAY  was  the  engineer  and 
general  superintendent  of  the  Cataract  Con- 
struction Compaq'  during  the  installation 
of  the  wheelpit  machinery. 


ELECTRIC  POWER  AT  NIAGARA. 


303 


no  magnetization  being  accounted  for 
by  the  core  loss.  As  already  stated, 
the  energy  required  to  drive  motor  and 
generator,  as  determined  in  the  case  of 
the  first  machine,  is  76  horse-power, 
and  by  subtracting  this  amount  from 
the  amounts  required  to  drive  the  gene- 
rator with  any  given  magnetization  in 
the  core,  we  have  a  closely  accurate 
measure  of  the  loss. 

In  this  way  it  was  determined  that 
the  amounts  of  power  delivered  to  the 
motor,  corresponding  to  potentials  at 
the  armature  terminals  varying  from 
2000  to  2400  volts,  were  as  follows  : 

2000  volts i2i  —  76  =  45  horse-power 

2200   "   130—76  =  54 

2400   " 141—76  =  65 

Were  the  armature  in  service,  de- 
livering currents  representing  the  full 
output  of  the  machine,  the  distribution 
of  the  magnetic  lines  in  the  armature 
core  would  be  somewhat,  but  not  very 
radically  different,  and  consequently 
these  measurements  do  not  tell  us  ex- 
actly what  the  loss  in  the  core  will  be 
under  conditions  of  actual  service. 
But,  making  a  fair  allowance  for  an  in- 
creased loss  due  to  this  and  other 
minor  causes  which  may  make  them- 
selves felt  in  the  commercial  operation 
of  the  generator,  it  would  seem  safe  to 
say  that  the  loss  in  the  armature  core, 
operating  at  2100  volts,  which  is  about 
the  voltage  at  which  those  generators 
supplying  local  service  will  be  operated, 
will  not  exceed  60  horse-power. 

The  loss  due  to  the  current  in  the 
armature  conductors  could  not  be  ac- 
curately determined  from  tests  in  the 
shop.  This  loss,  however,  is  easily 
calculated  with  close  accuracy  from 
measurements  of  the  resistance  of  the 
armature  conductors  and  the  known 
value  of  the  full  load  currents  which 
they  will  carry  in  service.  Disregard- 
ing possible  eddy  currents  in  the  con- 
ductors, which,  from  the  construction, 
should  be  almost  negligible,  calcula- 
tions show  that  the  loss  in  the  armature 
conductors  under  full  load  will  not  ex- 
ceed 30  horse-power.  Theory  indicates 
that  other  losses,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  eddy  currents  in  the  field 
poles,  will  be  so  small  as  to  be  practi- 


cally negligible,  and  including  the  loss 
in  the  field  poles,  which  could  not  be 
readily  determined,  their  amount  will 
not  be  sufficient  to  materially  affect  the 
efficiency  of  the  generator. 

To  sum  up  the  mechanical,  electric 
and  magnetic  losses,  when  the  genera- 
tor is  delivering  current  at  2100  volts, 
we  have  roughly  the  following: 

Maximum  loss  in  field  copper 15  horse-power 

I,oss  in  armature  core 60 

lyOss  in  armature  conductors 30 

Total 105  " 

To  arrive  at  the  actual  efficiency  of 
the  generator  we  must  add  to  this  the 
losses  due  to  air  friction  and  friction  of 
the  bearings,  but  the  tests  do  not  in- 
dicate to  what  these  amount,  except 
that  with  the  loss  in  the  thrust  bearing 
used  during  the  shop  tests  they  did  not 
exceed  50  horse-power.  With  the 
losses  in  the  thrust  bearing  charged 
against  the  generator  (which  is,  of 
course,  unfair  to  the  machine)  we  have 
for  the  total  mechanical,  electric  and 
magnetic  losses  155  horse-power.  In 
order  that  the  generator  shall  deliver 
5000  horse-power  to  the  circuits  it  is, 
therefore,  necessary  that  5155  horse- 
power be  transmitted  to  it  through  the 
shaft.  Dividing  5000  horse-power,  the 
output,  by  5155  horse-power,  the  as- 
sumed input,  we  have  almost  exactly 
97  per  cent.  From  all  this  it  appears 
perfectly  safe  to  say  that  the  generators, 
under  the  conditions  of  commercial 
service,  will,  at  full  load,  operate  at  an 
efficiency  exceeding  97  per  cent.  At 
the  time  of  writing  this,  the  tests  of  the 
generators  as  erected  in  the  power 
house  at  Niagara  are  not  yet  completed. 

The  description  of  the  electric  gen- 
erating plant  in  the  foregoing  pages 
is  necessarily  incomplete.  Much  that 
would  interest  scientific  specialists  is 
omitted  or  merely  glanced  at,  and  on 
the  other  hand,  space  and  time  have 
not  permitted  the  attempt  to  elucidate 
statements  which,  to  those  not  familiar 
with  electric  work,  must  appear  more 
or  less  obscured  by  technical  phrase- 
ology. This  I  cannot  hope  to  amend. 

The  tests  of  the  first  5000  horse- 
power unit  are  now  in  progress,  and 
success  is  assured.  When,  on  the 


304 


CASSIERiS  MAGAZINE. 


morning  of  April  4th,  1895,  Mr.  Ru- 
dolphe  Baumann,  the  Swiss  engineer, 
who  has  for  several  years  devoted  his 
skill  and  energy  to  perfect  the  hydrau- 
lic plant,  gently  moved  the  hand  wheel 
which  controls  the  first  turbine,  the 
field  of  the  generator  began  to  revolve, 
noiselessly,  irresistibly,  testifying  to  the 
skill  and  painstaking  effort  of  the  civil, 
hydraulic,  mechanical  and  electrical 
engineers,  whose  combined  efforts,  di- 
rected by  the  splendid  enterprise  of  the 
Cataract  Construction  Company,  have 
united  in  producing  a  5000  horse-power 
unit  of  machinery,  capable  of  transform- 
ing the  energy  of  falling  water  to  elec- 
tric energy,  live,  vibrant,  needing  only 
suitable  conductors  to  guide  it  across 
miles  of  country,  to  places  where  it  may 
turn  the  wheels  of  a  thousand  mills  and 
factories. 

The  Niagara  generators  were  con- 
structed by  the  Westinghouse  Com- 
pany, following,  as  regards  mechanical 
form,  the  type  of  machine  proposed  by 
the  engineers  of  the  Cataract  Construc- 
tion Company.  This  was  fully  de- 
scribed by  Prof.  George  Forbes  in  a 
paper  read  in  November,  1893,  before 
the  British  Institution  of  Electrical 


Engineers.  The  auxiliary  electric  ap- 
paratus, including  exciters,  switching 
devices,  measuring  instruments,  etc., 
were  designed  and  constructed  by  the 
Westinghouse  Company,  assisted,  as 
to  the  bus  bars,  by  the  Brown  &  Sharpe 
Manufacturing  Company,  of  Provi- 
dence, R.  I.,  U.  S.  A.,  and  the  India 
Rubber  and  Gutta  Percha  Insulating 
Company,  of  New  York. 

Among  those  who  have  been  par- 
ticularly prominent  in  the  work  are  : 
Mr.  Albert  Schmid,  general  superin- 
tendent ;  Mr.  C.  F.  Scott,  electrician  ; 
Mr.  Philip  Lange,  superintendent ;  Mr. 
O.  B.  Shallenberger,  consulting  elec- 
trician ;  Mr.  B.  C.  Lamme,  Mr.  E.  C. 
Means,  Mr.  H.  P.  Davis  ;  Messrs. 
Sigfried,  Wright,  Boegel,  W.  F. 
Lamme,  Beinitz,  Alberger,  Mirault, 
Friedlander,  Strauss,  Mould  and  Parks. 
To  Dr.  Coleman  Sellers,  president  and 
chief  engineer  of  the  Niagara  Falls 
Power  Company,  and  Mr.  De  Courcy 
May,  late  superintendent  and  engineer 
of  the  Cataract  Construction  Company, 
who,  in  consultation  with  Mr.  Schmid 
and  his  assistants,  made  many  valuable 
suggestions,  the  thanks  of  the  Westing- 
house  Company  are  also  due. 


f     .  OFTHE 

VERSITT 


JOHN  BOG  ART  is  one  of  the  consulting 
engineers  for  the  Cataract  Construction  Co., 
and,  as  such,  has  taken  a  prominent  part  in 
most  of  the  work  pertaining  to  the  great 
Niagara  enterprise. 


THE    MAIN    STREET. 


THE    INDUSTRIAL    VILLAGE    OF    ECHOTA    AT   NIAGARA. 

By  John  Bogart,  M.  Am.  Soc.    C.  E. 


THE  lands  of  the  Niagara  Power 
Company  extend  about  two  and 
one-quarter  miles  along  the  right 
bank  of  the  Niagara  river.  The  enor- 
mous mechanical  power  there  available, 
either  by  the  direct  use  of  water  or  by 
electrical  transmission,  will  bring  to 
these  lands  very  large  industrial  estab- 
lishments, some  of  which  have  been,  in 
fact,  already  built,  even  before  the 
power  which  they  require  could  be  fur- 
nished to  them. 

With  such  industries  must  come  a 
large  population  of  skilled  labour  op- 
eratives, mechanics,  experts,  foremen, 
clerks,  accountants,  superintendents 
and  proprietors.  It  is  in  all  respects 
desirable  that  the  homes  for  these  men 
and  their  families  should  not  be  too  far 
from  their  work,  and,  therefore,  the 
company  owning  the  lands  determined 
to  create  a  residence  neighbourhood 
which  should  have  comfortable  houses, 
with  all  practicable  conveniences,  with 
attractive  surroundings,  and  which 
could  be  rented  at  very  reasonable 
rates.  A  location  was  chosen  near  the 
centre  of  the  lands  of  the  company, 
and  upon  eighty-four  acres,  thus  se- 


lected less  than  two  years  ago,  there  is 
now  a  very  complete  village. 

The  story  of  so  speedy  a  develop- 
ment of  an  industrial  village,  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  plans  adopted  and  of  the 
methods  of  executing  the  constructions 
demanded  by  those  plans  should  not 
be,  under  any  circumstances,  uninter- 
esting. But  in  the  case  of  this  village 
of  Echota,  there  were  a  number  of 
special  conditions  which  presented  pe- 
culiar difficulties  in  determining  the  best 
solution  of  the  various  problems  inci- 
dent to  a  successful  result. 

The  land  upon  which  the  improve- 
ments have  been  made  is  of  oblong,  but 
not  exactly  rectangular,  shape,  about 
3000  feet  long  in  a  direction  parallel 
with  the  Niagara  river,  and  about  1500 
feet  in  width.  The  river  bank  is  dis- 
tant about  1000  feet  from  the  nearer 
line  of  the  village.  The  whole  area, 
both  of  the  village  and  of  the  land  be- 
tween it  and  the  river,  is  very  flat, 
sloping  very  slightly  to  the  bank. 
Over  the  whole  eighty-four  acres  of 
meadow  on  which  the  village  has  now 
been  laid  out,  there  was  an  extreme 
variation  of  surface  of  four  feet.  The. 

307 


308 


CASSIER'S    MAGAZINE. 


i  A  o  a 


THE  INDUSTRIAL    VILLAGE   OF  ECHOTA. 


309 


general  average  level  of  the  river,  562 
feet  above  tidewater  at  New  York,  is 
about  three  feet  lower  than  the  lower 
parts  of  the  village,  but  the  water  of  the 
river  occasionally  rises  to  very  nearly 
the  elevation  of  this  village  surface.  It 
was,  therefore,  impracticable  to  carry 
the  drainage  of  these  grounds  to  the 
river,  with  sufficient  fall  in  pipes  or 
gutters  to  quickly  relieve  the  surface 


the  village  was  covered  with  water  of 
considerable  depth  soon  after  the  be- 
ginning of  the  works  of  improvement. 

Under  a  few  inches  of  loam  which 
covers  these  grounds,  there  is  a  stratum 
of  about  eight  or  nine  feet  of  blue  clay, 
then  a  red  clay,  and  then  a  compact 
gravel  and  clay  overlies  the  rock,  which 
is  found  at  depths  of  not  less  than  four- 
teen feet.  In  their  natural  state  these 


ANOTHER   STREET   VIEW  IN   ECHOTA. 


from  the  water  of  rainfalls,  while  to 
carry  the  requisite  sub- drainage  directly 
to  the  river  was  simply  impossible. 

The  western  boundary  of  the  village 
is  a  stream  of  very  moderate  and  slug- 
gish flow  in  ordinary  seasons,  but  sud- 
denly expanding  and  overflowing  with 
an  enormous  volume  of  water  at  times 
of  heavy  rainfall  or  sudden  thaw.  A 
branch  of  this  stream,  with  the  same 
characteristics,  runs  just  north  of  the 
village  line.  The  place  is  thus  exposed 
on  two  sides  to  the  overflow  of  these 
streams,  and,  in  fact,  the  whole  area  of 


fields  were  in  very  bad  condition  for 
long  periods  after  every  rainfall,  and 
during  the  gradual  melting  of  the  win- 
ter snow.  The  water  gathered  in  shal- 
low pools.  There  was  not  sufficient 
general  surface  slope  to  carry  it  away, 
and  it  could  not  pass  through  the 
tenacious  underlying  clay.  It  disap- 
peared only  by  evaporation.  Experi- 
mental excavations  for  cellars  of  houses 
retained  water  as  tenaciously  as  well- 
cemented  cisterns.  The  land  during 
these  seasons  was  wet,  sticky  and 
heavy,  and  when  the  water  did  evapo- 


3io 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


THE   SEWAGE   DISPOSAL   WORKS. 


rate,  the  ground  became  baked  and 
seamed  with  wide  and  narrow  cracks  in 
the  hard  clay  soil.  The  roads  in  the 
vicinity  were  either  very  dusty  or  very 
muddy. 

One  of  the  features  of  the  design  is 
that  every  house  shall  be  provided  with 
a  dry  cellar  and  shall  have  a  fair  garden 
area.  The  plans  for  the  streets  also 


contemplate  considerable  grassy  sur- 
faces and  ample  provision  of  shade  trees. 
It  was,  therefore,  essential  that  the  soil 
should  be  always  in  fit  condition  to 
maintain  grass,  lawns,  trees,  gardens 
and  flowers. 

Streets  and  roads  cannot  be  kept  in 
good  order  nor  taken  care  of  economi- 
cally unless  thoroughly  under-drained. 


SECTION  AND  ELEVATION  OF  THE  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL  BUILDING. 


OF  THE 
XJJ8riVJGBSITY 


THE  INDUSTRIAL    VILLAGE   OF  ECHOTA. 


Furthermore,  and  of  still  greater  mo- 
ment, it  would  have  been  criminal  to 
have  invited  families  to  take  up  their 
abode  in  houses  built  upon  ground  in 
such  condition.  Malaria  and  kindred 
diseases  would  have  had  a  fertile  field. 
But  the  waters,  both  of  the  small  stream 
bounding  the  village,  and  of  the  Niagara 
river,  some  distance  away,  were  at  too 
great  an  elevation  to  receive  even  the 
rainfall  running  over  the  surface,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  water  taken  from  the 
subsoil  deeply  enough  to  give  the  free 
drainage  required. 

It  was  necessary  also  to  provide  an 
outlet  for  the  sewage  of  the  houses,  and 
the  elevation  of  the  streams  made  a 
direct  discharge  into  them  impracti- 
cable. A  discharge  of  this  drainage 
and  sewage  into  the  lower  river  below 
the  Falls,  would  have  been  possible,  but 
it  would  have  involved  the  construction 
of  a  conduit  of  great  length,  which,  to 
secure  the  necessary  gradient,  would 
have  been  mostly  in  deep  rock  excava- 
tion and  would  have  necessarily  been 
of  considerable  size  to  provide,  in 
addition,  for  the  sewage  of  all  the  dis- 
trict lying  between  Echota  and  the 
lower  river.  The  authorities  of  the  city 
of  Niagara  Falls  did  not  feel  that  it  was 
necessary,  at  present,  to  extend  their 
sewer  system  to  Echota  and  the  con- 
sulting engineer  of  the  Niagara  Develop- 
ment Company  found  a  much  less  ex- 
pensive method  of  providing  fully  for  its 
needs.  It  will,  however,  be  practicable 
to  directly  connect  both  the  drainage 
and  sewerage  systems  with  the  extended 
trunk  lines  of  the  city  sewers  when 
they  reach  Echota.  The  receiving  well 
and  the  disposal  house  have  been 
located  particularly  with  this  in  view. 

A  complete  system  of  under-drainage 
was  designed  and  executed  just  as 
designed.  The  street  plan  of  Echota, 
as  shown  in  the  illustration  on  page  313, 
includes  alleys  in  the  rear  of  the  resi- 
dence lots.  Advantage  was  taken  of 
this  fact  to  separate  the  lines  of  drain- 
age conduits,  and  those  of  the  sewerage 
system,  the  latter  carrying  only  house 
wastes.  The  principal  pipes  of  the 
drainage  system  follow  the  streets ; 
those  to  convey  sewage  are  in  the 


PLAN  OF  STATION  FOR  WELLS    AND  PUMPS, 

SEWAGE  DISPOSAL  AND   ELECTRIC 

LIGHTING. 


CROSS   SECTION   OF   S2WA 


ETTLING   TANKS. 


alleys.  The  latter  are  at  a  higher 
elevation  than  the  drain  tiles,  and,  thus, 
house  connections  for  sewage  can  be 
made  without  danger  of  disturbance  of 
the  drainage  system. 

The  basis  of  the  drainage  plan  is  a 


3I2 


GASSIER JS  MAGAZINE. 


system  of  tiles  of  two  inches  internal 
diameter,  and  laid,  as  a  rule,  forty  feet 
apart  Their  depth  is,  generally,  from 
four  to  six  feet  below  the  surface.  They 
have  open  joints,  no  cement  or  mortar 
being  used,  but  around  the  joints  was 
wrapped  a  double  thickness  of  cheese 
cloth.  Where  strata  of  quicksand  oc- 
casionally occurred,  the  tiles  were  laid 
on  a  board.  The  exterior  of  the  tiles 
was  octagonal.  The  minimum  gradient 


of  tiles  with  other  lines  were  made  by 
special  Y  and  T  pieces,  no  cutting  of 
tiles  being  allowed.  The  three-inch 
tiles  led,  at  frequent  intervals,  to  receiv- 
ing basins  in  the  centre  of  the  streets, 
and  the  effluent  from  these  basins  is 
conducted  by  lines  of  vitrified  pipe  to  a 
large  masonry  well,  built  near  the  north- 
western angle  of  the  village  in  connec- 
tion with  the  sewage  disposal  works. 
This  well  is  oval  in  form,  15  feet  by 


THE   INTERIOR    OF    THE    SEWAGE    DISPOSAL    WORKS. 


was  three- tenths  of  one  per  cent,  and 
very  great  care  was  taken  by  the 
engineers  in  charge  of  construction  to 
secure  perfect  alignment. 

The  excellent  working  of  the  system 
proves  this  to  have  been  accomplished. 
The  two-inch  tiles  deliver  into  lines  of 
three-inch  tiles,  laid  in  the  same  way 
and  placed,  generally,  in  the  streets, 
under  the  grass  surfaces,  but  so  dis- 
posed as  to  draw  the  water  fully  from 
the  ground  under  and  on  both  sides  of 
the  paved  parts.  All  junctions  of  lines 


20  feet  in  diameter,  and  of  sufficient 
depth  to  provide  for  the  suction  pipes 
leading  to  the  pumps.  It  is  divided,  by 
a  brick  wall,  into  two  compartments, 
one  of  which  receives  the  sewage  and 
the  other,  the  drainage  water.  The 
latter  is  pumped  directly  into  the  outlet 
chamber  of  the  disposal  works,  whence 
it  passes  with  the  purified  sewage  efflu- 
ent into  the  small  stream  above  referred 
to  and,  thence,  to  the  Niagara  river. 
The  illustration  on  the  opposite  page 
shows,  by  the  fine  dotted  lines,  that  the 


THE  INDUSTRIAL     VILLAGE    OF  ECHOTA. 


313 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


^—^^-  — ^----^^---'— —  —  ~— PRFSFNT-WATER  LCVF.L-JF 


CROSS  SECTION  OF  AN   ECHOTA  STREET  WITH   TELFORD-MACADAM   PAVEMENT. 


whole  village  is  underlaid  by  this  drain- 
age system. 

These  open  jointed  small  tiles  have 
utterly  changed  the  physical  and  sani- 
tary conditions  of  the  ground  on  which 
the  village  is  built.  It  is  no  longer 
heavy  or  muddy  after  rains,  neither  is 
it  dusty  nor  dry  during  the  warm 
season.  The  hard  clay  has  become 
friable  ;  the  water  of  rains  sinks  quickly 
into  the  ground  and  disappears,  grasses 
flourish,  the  lawns  are  in  excellent  con- 
dition, the  trees  which  have  been  set 
out  are  healthy,  and  the  cellars  are 
perfectly  dry.  In  fact,  the  level  of  the 
ground  water  has  been  lowered  fully 
four  feet,  which  is  virtually,  and  for  all 
horticultural  and  sanitary  purposes,  ex- 
actly the  same  as  though  the  whole 
surface  had  been  lifted  four  feet.  The 
place  no  longer  suggests  dampness 
and  discomfort,  and  the  difference  in 
the  feel  of  the  air  is  very  perceptible 
to  those  who  have  spent  much  time 


there  before  and  after  the  introduction 
of  this  drainage. 

As  every  house  to  be  built  in  the 
village  is  to  be  provided  with  running 
water,  with  closets  and  with  kitchen 
sinks,  a  system  of  sewerage  was  re- 
quired which  would  convey  all  house 
wastes  quickly  and  certainly  to  their 
ultimate  disposal.  A  separate  system 
was  designed,  which  takes  no  storm  or 
drainage  water.  Its  conduits  are  vitri- 
fied pipes,  with  a  minimum  interior 
diameter  of  six  inches.  These  are  laid 
generally  in  the  alleys,  at  an  elevation 
above  the  drain  tiles.  House  connec- 
tions will  thus  be  made  without  disturb- 
ing the  street  surfaces.  The  pipes  have 
cemented  joints  and  are  automatically 
flushed  at  regular  periods.  They  con- 
duct the  sewage  to  one  compartment  of 
the  well  above  described.  From  this 
well  the  sewage  might  be  pumped  to 
the  small  stream  near  at  hand,  or 
through  a  pipe  of  proper  size,  directly 


3RAIN          ^"«icn  QSEWER 

CROSS   SECTION"   OF   THE   BOULEVARD   AT   ECHOTA. 


THE  INDUSTRIAL     VILLAGE   OF  ECHOTA. 


into  the  Niagara  river.  While  the 
dilution  would  be  great,  it  was  not 
deemed  advisable,  nor  desirable,  to 
thus  deliver  untreated  sewage  into  the 
river,  and  a  system  was,  therefore, 
adopted  which  secures  the  separation  of 
all  solids,  the  purification  of  the  liquid 
and  the  delivery  of  an  effluent  deprived 
of  all  unsightly  and  unwholesome  char- 
acteristics. 

This  is  effected  in  the  sewage  dis- 
posal works  of  which  the  location  is 
seen  in  the  drawing.  The  details  of 
construction  of  these  works  are  also 
illustrated.  There  is  a  double  set  of 
elongated  tanks  or  deposition  chambers, 
so  arranged  in  section  and  in  length  as 
to  ensure  a  very  slow  passage  of  the 
sewage  undergoing  treatment.  It  is 
pumped  from  the  well  directly  to  the 
end  of  one  of  these  elongated  cham- 
bers, and  is  there  treated  automatically, 
by  the  action  of  float  valves,  with  milk 
of  lime  and  a  solution  of  perchloride  of 
iron. 

Sedimentation  and  precipitation  of 
the  solids  follow,  and  any  floating  sub- 
stances are  intercepted  by  screens. 
Chlorine  is  delivered  through  perforated 
pipes  supported  on  brackets  near  the 
bottom  of  the  chambers.  When  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  the  purified  fluid  has 
passed  over  a  weir  into  the  terminal 
tank,  it  flows,  by  syphonage,  into  the 
effluent  chamber  and,  thence,  with  the 
pure  drainage  water,  pumped  from  the 
other  compartment  of  the  well,  it  en- 
ters the  stream.  While  one  set  of 
tanks  is  in  use,  the  deposited  material 
is  removed  by  traveling  buckets  from 
the  other  tank,  and  is  used  upon  the 
cultivated  grounds  of  the  company. 
The  effluent  is  clear  and  clean.  These 
works  were  constructed  by  Mr.  James  J. 
Powers,  an  expert  in  the  treatment  of 
sewage.  The  building  which  shelters 
the  well,  the  pumps  and  the  disposal 
tanks  is  of  an  exterior  construction  in 
harmony  with  the  architecture  of  the 
dwellings  in  the  village.  This  building 
has  also  the  dynamo  for  the  electric 
light  service  of  the  place. 

The  occasional  sudden  engorgement 
and  overflow  of  the  small  streams  at 
the  site  of  Echota  has  been  already 


spoken  of.  While  the  system  of  drain- 
age will  take  care  of  all  ordinary  rain- 
fall, experience  on  two  occasions  has 
given  reason  to  feel  that  special  meas- 
ures were  desirable  to  prevent  the  dam- 
age and  discomfort  which  might  follow 
the  erratic  action  of  these  streams.  At 
such  times  they  overflow  their  banks. 
But  observation  has  shown  that  a  con- 
siderable expanse  of  country  surround- 
ing Echota  may  then  also  be  under 
water.  An  elevation  of  the  bank  of 


ONE  OF  THE  CATCH  BASINS  FOR  THE  DRAINAGE 
SYSTEM. 


the  stream  immediately  adjacent  to  the 
village  would  not  suffice. 

In  order  to  protect  the  whole  area  of 
the  improved  district,  it  must  be  guarded 
on  every  side.  This  has  been  accom- 
plished by  the  construction  of  a  bank  or 
dyke  along  the  boundary  line  and  en- 
tirely surrounding  the  village.  This 
dyke  is  eight  feet  wide  on  top,  has  side 
slopes  of  one  and  a  half  to  one  and  is 
compactly  built  so  as  to  resist  the  pass- 
age of  water.  On  the  east  boundary 
of  the  grounds  it  is  supplemented  by  a 
ditch  on  the  outer  side,  ten  feet  in 
width,  so  placed  as  to  intercept  and 
carry  to  the  Niagara  river  any  volume 
of  water  that  may  come  towards  Echota 


CASS/£X'S  MAGAZINE. 


inri 


THK    SCHOOL    AT    ECHOTA. 


from  the  higher  grounds  above.  Where 
the  small  stream  above  alluded  to  is  ad- 
jacent to  the  village,  the  dyke  is 
widened  to  fifty  feet  and  becomes  an 
exterior  street. 

As  an  additional  precaution,  and 
especially  to  prevent  any  possible  dam- 
age in  the  event  of  a  temporary  stop- 
page of  the  pumps,  a  relief  conduit  has 
been  laid  to  the  river,  arranged  with  a 
check  valve  so  as  to  open  whenever 
the  level  of  the  ground  water  should 
rise  higher  than  the  water  in  the  river. 
These  combined  measures  have  not 
only  brought  the  land  included  within 
the  boundaries  of  -Echota  to  the  satis- 
factory condition  described  above,  but 
they  have  secured  them  from  all  danger 
of  overflow. 


The  study  of  a  design  for  the  ground 
plan  of  streets  was  primarily  affected 
by  some  existing  conditions.  The 
village  was  bounded  on  the  west  by  the 
small  stream,  on  the  south  by  straight 
lines  of  railroad  and  on  the  north  and 
east  by  defined  property  lines.  There 
was  one  street,  sixty-six  feet  wide, 
passing  through  the  property,  which 
could  not,  for  legal  reasons,  be  changed. 
Necessarily  accepting  these  conditions, 
the  plan  adopted  is  shown  on  page  313. 

The  system  of  streets  and  alleys  was 
based  mainly  on  parallelism  with  the 
longer  side  of  the  village.  The  streets 
are,  generally,  fifty  feet  in  width,  but 
all  houses  are  placed  twenty  feet  back 
from  the  street  line.  The  fifty  feet 
street  thus  becomes  virtually  ninety  feet 


THE  INDUSTRIAL    VILLAGE   OF- ECHO  TA, 


wide,  giving  to  each  house  a  front  yard 
and  lawn.  The  lots  are,  generally, 
about  115  feet  deep,  some  being  still 
deeper  and  only  a  few  being  100  feet. 
There  is,  thus,  ample  space  for  gardens 
and  yards.  A  system  including  alleys 
was  adopted  after  careful  consultation 


on  each  side  of,  and  outside,  the  road- 
way, but  near  the  curb  and  running 
between  a  double  line  of  trees.  The 
houses  are  to  be,  uniformly,  twenty 
feet  back  from  the  street  line,  as  is 
shown  on  page  314. 

The  streets  of  fifty  feet  in  width  have 


FRONT  ELEVATION. 


SIDE  ELEVAT-ION. 


FIRST  FLOOR.  SECOND  FLOOR. 

ELEVATIONS  AND  PLANS  OF  ONE  OF  THE  SMALL  HOUSES  AT  ECHOTA. 


with  the  officers  of  the  company. 
Under  the  strict  sanitary  regulations 
which  will  be  made  and  continued,  the 
objections  against  alleys,  found  to  exist 
in  some  places,  will  not  there  obtain. 
One  street,  to  meet  the  extension  of  a 
proposed  boulevard  to  Buffalo,  is  100 
feet  in  width.  It  has  a  roadway  of 
forty  feet,  a  provision  for  electric  cars 


a  roadway  of  twenty- five  feet,  and  a 
single  line  of  trees  on  each  side.  On 
the  drawing  of  this  street  there  are,  in- 
cidentally, shown  the  lines  of  original 
water  level  and  of  the  present  level  to 
which  it  has  been  lowered.  The  road- 
ways have  a  Telford- Macadam  pave- 
ment. This  is  formed  by  bringing  the 
earth  to  lines  parallel  with  the  proposed 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


FRONT  ELEVATION. 


FIRST  FLOOR. 


SECOND  FLOOR. 


ELEVATION    AND   PLANS   OF   ONE   OF   THE 
LARC1ER    HOUSES    AT    ECHOTA. 


final  surface  and  the  earth  is  then  well 
compacted  by  rolling.  On  this  surface 
is  placed  the  Telford  foundation  of 
quarried  limestone  blocks,  eight  inches 
in  thickness.  Upon  these  stones  is 
placed  a  small  quantity  of  sandy  binding 
material,  and  the  surface  is  rolled 
smooth.  Then  follows  trap  rock  broken 
into  pieces  not  to  exceed  two  inches  in 
size.  This  is  three  inches  in  depth  and, 
with  another  binding  coat  on  its  top,  is 
again  well  rolled.  There  is  then  added 
another  layer,  two  inches  in  depth,  of 
trap  rock,  broken  into  pieces  not  to 
exceed  one  inch  in  size.  This  is  rolled, 
covered  with  screenings  from  the  broken 
trap  and  finally  brought  to  the  required 
lines  by  thorough  rolling,  using  water 
during  the  operation.  A  steam  roller 
is  used  for  this  work. 

Maple  and  elm  trees  have  been  set 
three  feet  within  the  lines  of  curb.  The 
paved  surfaces  have  a  crown  of  four 
inches  in  the  width  of  twenty-five  feet, 
and  of  six  inches  on  the  one  street, 
Sugar  street,  where  the  pavement  is 
forty-two  feet  in  width.  The  grades  of 
streets  and  gutters  are  necessarily  very 
light,  but  the  lines  have  been  laid  so 
truly  that  no  trouble  has  been  experi- 
enced from  stoppage  of  the  flow  of 
water.  Inlet  basins,  of  which  the  con- 
struction is  shown  by  the  sketch  on  page 
315  are  placed  at  the  corners  of  streets 
and  at  other  points,  so  that  they  are 
never  farther  apart  than  440  feet  and 
generally  not  more  than  300  feet. 
These  receive  the  water  from  the  street 
surfaces  and  gutters  and  are  connected 
by  trapped  inlets  with  the  drainage 
conduits.  They  have  a  large  depressed 
chamber  below  the  level  of  the  outlet 
pipe,  in  which  any  solids  or  street 
detritus  are  precipitated  by  gravity  and 
frequently  removed  through  the  cover 
at  the  surface. 

The  same  provision  of  a  settling  or 
silt  basin,  to  intercept  detritus,  is  made 
in  the  basins  receiving  drainage  from 
the  lines  of  sub-surface  tiles,  and 
wherever  more  than  two  lines  of  tiles 
met  at  one  point  there  was  placed  a  silt 
basin,  made  of  vitrified  pipes,  fifteen 
inches  in  diameter,  extending  below  the 
inlet  and  outlet.  Connections  with 


THE  INDUSTRIAL    VILLAGE    OF  ECHOTA. 


these  basins  were  made  by  special  vitri- 
fied pipe  with  branches  to  fit  the  angles 
of  the  drains. 

All  the  houses  in  the  village  are 
built  by  the  company.  Their  architec- 
ture combines  a  general  uniformity  of 
design  with  much  variety  in  form  and 
detail.  The  architects  were  Messrs. 
McKim,  Meade  &  White,  of  New 
York.  The  general  appearance  of  the 
houses  is  well  indicated  in  the  several 
illustrations  reproduced  from  photo- 


one  roof,  but  with  entirely  separate 
entrances  in  the  front  and  rear,  and 
each  with  its  own  yard  and  garden 
space.  The  larger  house  has  ten  rooms, 
with  furnace,  bath  and  other  desirable 
arrangements.  The  rental  for  the 
houses  runs  from  $9  to  $30  (^i  i6s.  to 
;£6)  a  month  and  includes,  in  each  case, 
water  and  electric  light.  It  is  the  in- 
tention of  the  company,  as  soon  as  the 
character  of  the  settlement  is  firmly 
established,  to  give  its  tenants  an 


ASSEMBLY   ROOM,   STORE   AND   HOUSES   AT  ECHOTA. 


graphs.  All  are  painted  in  the  colors 
adopted  by  the  company, — yellow  and 
white. 

Houses  for  about  fifty  families  have 
already  been  built.  These  vary  both  in 
exterior  appearance  and  interior  ar- 
rangement. One  of  the  simpler  and 
smaller  houses  and  one  of  the  larger 
and  more  elaborate  ones  are  illustrated 
by  elevations  and  plans  on  pages  317 
and  318.  The  smaller  house  has  four 
rooms  of  good  size  and  also  a  large 
cellar.  It  has  electric  light,  running 
water,  closet  and  kitchen  sink.  Some 
of  the  houses  with  this  ground  plan  and 
number  of  rooms  are  detached,  others 
are  built  with  either  two  or  four  under 


opportunity  to  purchase  their  homes  on 
easy  terms,  thus  avoiding  the  evils 
which  have  at  times  resulted  from  the 
too  positive  application  of  the  pro- 
prietary system.  The  general  appear- 
ance of  the  parts  of  the  village  where 
houses  have  been  built  is  very  pleasing 
and  attractive. 

Water,  filtered  by  the  Morison  & 
Jewell  gravity  system,  is  furnished  by 
the  Niagara  Falls  Water  Works  Com- 
pany, one  of  the  allied  companies  of  the 
power  company,  and  hydrants  are 
placed  at  convenient  distances.  Ample 
provision  of  hose  is  made  for  fire  pro- 
tection. The  streets  are  lighted  by  in- 
candescent lights  of  fifty  candle  power 


320 


GASSIER' S    MAGAZINE. 


THE  INDUSTRIAL    VILLAGE    OF  ECHOTA. 


321 


each.  A  large  building  has  been  placed 
at  one  of  the  prominent  street  corners. 
The  lower  floor  is  for  a  general  store, 
and  the  upper  floor  has  a  handsome 
hall,  with  dressing  and  toilet  rooms, 
which  is  put  at  the  service  of  the  resi- 
dents of  the  village.  A  commodious 
brick  school-house,  also,  has  recently 
been  built  at  Echota  by  the  city  of 
Niagara  Falls. 

All  the  works  of  construction  have 
been  continuously  in  charge  of  the  resi- 
dent engineer,  Mr.  W.  A.  Bracken- 
ridge,  who  has  also  given  many  valuable 
original  suggestions,  particularly  in  the 
development  of  the  protection  dykes, 
the  construction  of  the  roads  and  the 
arrangement  of  the  houses.  The  word 
Echota  signifies,  in  the  Indian  language, 
"  Place  of  Refuge."  It  was  suggested 
as  an  appropriate  name  by  Mr.  Edward 
D.  Adams,  the  president  of  the  Cataract 
Construction  Company. 

Echota  is  adjacent  to  the  principal 
lines  of  railroad,  the  company  having 
already  built  a  handsome  station  on  the 
New  York  Central  and  Hudson  River 
Railroad.  Two  principal  streets  of  the 
city  of  Niagara  Falls  run  past  and 
through  the  village,  and  lines  of  electric 
cars  are  now  in  operation,  connecting 
with  all  parts  of  the  city.  At  the  foot 


of  one  of  the  main  streets  of  the  village 
is  the  wharf  from  which  a  daily  line  of 
steamers  runs  to  Buffalo. 

The  village  of  Echota  has,  thus,  been 
evolved  in  accordance  with  the  careful 
study  of  the  men  to  whom  was  com- 
mitted the  responsibility  of  the  solution 
of  a  complex  problem.  A  district,  not 
fit  for  comfortable  residence,  has  been 
transformed  into  an  ideal,  healthful 
village.  Ground  upon  which  no  vege- 
tation would  thrive  has  been  changed 
to  a  region  of  velvet  lawns  and  bloom- 
ing gardens.  Roads  which  were  a  dis- 
comfort from  dust,  or  an  annoyance 
from  mud,  have  been  made  into  well- 
paved,  beautiful  streets.  An  unattrac- 
tive expanse  of  poor  meadowland  has 
become  a  model  town,  with  inviting 
residences  at  very  moderate  expense  for 
the  families  of  all  who  may  have  to  do 
with  the  busy  industries  called  into 
action  by  the  wonderful  power  drawn 
from  the  Falls.  The  prudent  foresight 
of  the  managers  of  capital,  the  artistic 
design  of  the  architects  and  the  well- 
matured  plans  of  the  engineers  have 
given  a  result  about  which  the  author 
does  not  hesitate  to  write,  because  that 
result  will  have  an  effective  part  in  the 
great  story  of  the  successful  develop- 
ment of  the  forces  of  Niagara. 


XJHIVEBSI 


\ 

ITTI 
jr 


NOTABLE    EUROPEAN    WATER    POWER   INSTALLATIONS. 

By  Col.  Th.  Turrettini. 


are 


HAVING  been  in- 
vited by  the  editor 
to  contribute,  as 
consulting  engineer 
to  the  Cataract  Con- 
struction Company, 
an  article  to  this 
number  of  CASS- 
IER'S  MAGAZINE, 
it  seems  proper  to 
say  that  my  English 
f^m  and  American  col- 
jpk  leagues,  who  are 
living  closer  to  the 
great  Niagara  work, 
better  able  than  I  to 
speak  of  this  gigantic  under- 
taking, and  to  describe  how 
the  impetuous  Niagara  river 
was  mastered  and  how  the 
wonderful  machinery  was  installed, 
which,  by  electric  means,  will  spread 
light  and  power  far  around  Niagara 
Falls. 

Leaving,  therefore,  all  account  of  the 
Niagara  plant  to  others,  I  will  endeavour 
to  give,  for  interesting  comparison,  a 
description  of  similar  works  which  have 
been,  or  are  being,  carried  out  in 
Europe,  more  especially  the  works 
which  the  city  of  Geneva,  in  Switzer- 
land, is  now  building  and  which  I  have 
the  honour  of  directing  as  president  of 
the  Geneva  municipality  and  director 
of  its  public  works. 

In  comparison  with  the  installation  at 
Niagara  Falls  even  the  greatest  Euro- 
pean works  for  the  utilization  of  water 
power  are  small ;  they  are  to  the  Niagara 
works  in  the  proportion  of  the  Euro- 
pean to  the  American  continent,  in  the 
proportion  of  the  Rh6ne  or  the  Rhine 
to  the  Mississippi  and  the  St.  Lawrence. 
The  town  of  Schaffhausen,  on  the 
Rhine,  was  the  first  in  Switzerland  to 
endeavour  to  use  the  river  passing 
322 


through  it  to  procure  power  for  driving 
the  machinery  of  the  manufacturers  in 
its  neighbourhood.  Its  works  were 
established  twenty-one  years  ago 
through  the  generosity  of  one  of  its 
wealthy  citizens,  M.  Moser,  who,  to 
endow  his  native  city  with  this  impor- 
tant water  power,  laid  out  large  sums 
of  money.  At  that  time  no  other  means 
of  transmitting  power  was  known  than 
that  of  wire  ropes,  and  to  that  purpose 
very  costly  apparatus  was  set  up  in  the 
middle  of  the  river,  the  Rhine  being 
dammed  up  so  as  to  procure  a  fall  to 
drive  a  set  of  turbines.  About  1500 
horse-power  was  obtained  in  this  way 
and  was  distributed  to  neighbouring 
workshops.  The  system  of  wire  ropes 
necessarily  limited  the  development  of 
the  works,  and  the  Schaffhausen  plant 
remained  as  it  was  when  started,  until 
the  progress  of  electrical  knowledge 
allowed  of  further  extension.  Three 
years  ago,  three  new  turbines,  of  500 
horse-power  each,  were  added,  driving 
dynamos  which  distribute  electric  power 
to  neighbouring  factories. 

The  example  of  Schaffhausen  was 
followed  a  few  years  later  at  Bellegarde, 
on  the  Rh6ne.  The  little  town  of 
Bellegarde  is  situated  in  France  close  to 
the  Swiss  frontier.  There  the  Rhone, 
cased  in  between  high  cliffs  of  rock,  has 
pierced  for  itself  a  subterranean  channel 
in  which  it  disappears  entirely  in  winter 
when  the  waters  are  low  ;  for  this  reason 
the  place  is  called  the  "  Perte  du 
Rh6ne."  An  English  company  ob- 
tained the  concession  to  establish  in 
this  place  a  water-power  plant  amount- 
ing to  several  thousand  horse-power. 
The  company  formed  a  reservoir  to  re- 
ceive the  waters  of  the  Rhone  above 
the  "Perte  du  Rhone,"  cut  a  tunnel 
in  the  rock  about  1200  meters,  or 
nearly  4000  .feet  long,  and  erected  a 


^flBfek. 


COL.  THEODORE  TURRETTINI  was  one  of 
the  members  of  the  International  Niagara 
Falls  Commission.  He  is  now  president  of 
the  municipality  of  Geneva,  Switzerland,  and 
director  of  its  public  works. 


EUROPEAN    WATER   POWER   INSTALLATIONS. 


325 


building  for  the  housing  of  six  turbines 
of  630  horse-power  each,  working 
under  a  head  of  water  of  14  meters,  or 
about  46  feet.  The  water-power  was 
used  to  pump  water  to  the  upper  level 
of  the  town  above,  and  to  distribute 
power  in  Bellegarde  by  means  of  the 
previously  mentioned  wire  ropes. 
There,  again,  the  cable  transmission  was 
a  cause  of  restraint  in  the  development 
of  the  works  and  several  companies  suc- 
ceeded one  another  without  attaining 
the  utilization  of  all  the  available  power. 

In  1878,  the  town  of  Zurich  estab- 
lished in  the  Limmat,  where  it  issues 
from  the  lake,  and  in  the  town  itself, 
works  of  1500  horse-power,  by  the  suc- 
cessive setting  up  of  several  turbines  of 
200  horse-power,  working  under  a  fall 
of  water  varying  between  2  and  3 
meters,  or  about  6^  and  10  feet.  These 
remarkable  works  were  constructed 
under  the  direction  of  M.  Burkli,  then 
town-engineer  of  Zurich.  The  greater 
part  of  the  power  obtained  was  used  for 
providing  water  to  the  town  ;  what  re- 
mained was  distributed  to  factories  for 
driving  small  private  turbines  up  to  5 
horse-power.  Besides  this,  from  about 
200  to  400  horse-power  could  be  dis- 
tributed by  wire  rope  to  an  industrial 
quarter  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood 
of  the  water-works.  While  the  distri- 
bution of  power  through  water-pressure 
was  rapidly  taken  up,  the  distribution  of 
power  through  cables  proved  a  failure 
just  as  it  had  been  at  Schaffhausen  and 
Bellegarde. 

At  the  same  time  a  company  was 
formed  in  Fribourg,  for  utilizing  the 
power  of  the  Sarine  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  of  the  town  of  Fribourg. 
There  were  1500  horse-power  to  be  dis- 
posed of,  and  the  system  of  trans- 
mission was  again  that  of  wire  rope. 
The  use  of  this  system  of  transmission 
was  there  again  a  failure,  and  the  com- 
pany had  to  be  wound  up.  Several 
years  ago  the  works  were  bought  up 
by  the  Fribourg  Government,  and 
electric  transmission  was  introduced. 
This  transformation  has  given  the  works 
a  fresh  start  and  they  are  now  doing 
well. 

In  1882,  I  was  elected  by  my  fellow- 


citizens  to  the  direction  of  the  public 
works  of  the  town  of  Geneva  in  conse- 
quence of  a  paper  which  I  published  in 
support  of  the  idea  of  utilizing  the  whole 
power  of  the  Rhone  as  it  issues  from 
the  lake  of  Geneva  and  passes  through 
the  town.  The  studies  made  with  that 
object,  and  to  which  several  distin- 
guished Swiss  engineers  contributed, 
such  as  Messrs.  Merle  d'Aubigne, 
Legler,  A.  Achard  and  Prof.  Pestalozzi, 
proved  that  the  Rhone  afforded,  at 
Geneva,  about  6000  horse-power.  The 
system  to  be  adopted  for  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  power  was  the  subject  of  a 
special  study. 

Wire  rope  transmission  of  power  had 
been  condemned  by  experience,  for  it 
has  been  amply  proved  that  factories 
will  not  come  to  the  source  of  power, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  power 
must  be  transmitted  to  wherever  fac- 
tories are  established.  Transmission 
by  compressed  air  gave  unsatisfactory 
results,  and  transmission  by  electricity 
had  not,  in  1882,  reached  the  degree  of 
perfection  which  it  has  attained  since 
then,  and  could  not  be  thought  of. 

The  only  system  which  remained  to 
be  considered  was  that  of  water  under 
pressure,  and  this  was  the  means  of 
transmission  which  was  adopted.  Ex- 
perience has  proved  that  the  choice  of 
that  system  was  a  good  one.  The 
efficiency  of  water-pressure  transmission 
is  not  considerable,  but  this  drawback 
was  counterbalanced  by  numerous  ad- 
vantages, some  of  which  result,  it  is  true, 
from  the  special  situation  of  Geneva. 
The  water  of  the  lake,  employed  for  the 
distribution  of  the  power,  is  absolutely 
pure.  It  could,  therefore,  be  utilized 
as  drinking  water,  as  well  as  for  general 
industrial  purposes  and  motive  power. 
The  same  water  mains  could  also  be 
used  for  town  uses  and  for  working 
private  turbines.  The  water  employed, 
containing  no  sand  in  suspension,  does 
not  wear  out  machinery. 

The  studies  preliminary  to  undertak- 
ing the  new  works  were  completed  at 
the  end  of  1883.  A  credit  of  two  mill- 
ion francs  was  voted  by  the  Municipal 
Council  of  Geneva  and  the  works  were 
begun  at  once.  The  plan  consisted  in 


326 


CASSJER'S  MAGAZINE. 


EUROPEAN    WATER  POWER   INSTALLATIONS. 


327 


THE   NEW   POWER   HOUSE   NEAR   GENEVA,   CONTAINING    15   TURBINES   OF  I2OO   HORSE-POWER   EACH. 


the  setting  up  of  eighteen  turbines,  of 
300  horse-power  each,  representing  a 
total  of  5400  horse-power.  The  avail- 
able fall  varied  between  1.80  meter 
(about  6  feet)  in  summer,  and  4  meters 
{about  13  feet)  in  winter. 

The  first  credit  which  was  voted  con- 
templated the  carrying  out  of  all  the  con- 
struction work,  dams,  buildings,  etc., 
and  the  establishment  of  five  groups 
of  turbines  and  pumps.  The  regulation 
of  the  level  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva 
formed  a  part  of  the  new  scheme.  For 
more  than  200  years  constant  quarrels 
had  arisen  between  the  inhabitants  of 
the  lake  shores  and  the  city  of  Geneva 
because  of  a  supposed  raising  of  the 
level  of  the  lake  arising  from  the  works 
carried  out  in  the  Geneva  estuary,  and 
it  was  hoped  that  the  carrying  out  of 
the  new  scheme  for  utilizing  the  forces 
of  the  Rhone  would  allow  an  end  to  be 
put  to  these  disputes.  Geneva  obtained 
i,  100,000  francs  from  the  various  States 
bordering  on  the  lake  to  carry  out, 
simultaneously  with  its  water-works,  a 
movable  dam  which  would  permit 
keeping  the  lake  always  at  exactly  the 
same  level  in  all  seasons. 

The  works  were  actively  pushed  along 
and  on  June  16,  1886,  the  inauguration 


festivities  took  place.  Thanks  to  the 
system  of  power  distribution  adopted, 
the  development  was  faster  than  had 
been  anticipated,  and  to-day,  in  less 
than  nine  years  from  the  starting  of  the 
machinery,  seventeen  turbines,  out  of 
the  eighteen  contemplated,  have  been 
erected  and  the  eighteenth  is  now 
being  constructed.  From  a  financial 
point  of  view,  the  town  of  Geneva  has 
done  well,  for,  in  the  year  1894,  the 
works  gave  a  net  profit  of  2^  per  cent, 
after  deducting  3^  per  cent,  for  the 
interest  on  the  capital  and  the  sinking 
fund  for  the  wear  and  tear  of  machinery. 

The  capital  engaged  in  this  under- 
taking amounted,  on  December  31, 
1894,  to  5,500,000  francs.  This  com- 
prised the  cost  of  the  system  of  water 
pipes  for  distribution  which,  put  end  to 
end,  would  be  140  kilometers,  or  about 
87  miles  long. 

The  success  of  Geneva  in  the  estab- 
lishment of  water  motive  power  encour- 
aged other  towns  also  to  try  to  make 
use  of  the  natural  water  power  in  their 
neighbourhood.  At  Lyons,  in  France, 
a  company  was  formed  to  construct  a 
diverting  canal  above  the  city  and 
create  a  fall  of  about  8  meters  (about 
26  feet)  at  a  place  called  Jonage,  about 


328 


CASSJER'S  MAGAZINE. 


5  kilometers  (3  miles)  from  the  city. 
About  15,000  horse-power  is  available 
there  and  electrical  transmission  will  be 
employed.  The  works  have  just  been 
commenced. 

At  Rheinfelden  on  the  Rhine,  about 
15  miles  above  Basle  a  company  has 
obtained  a  concession  for  12,000  horse- 
power, under  4  meters  (about  13  feet) 
fall.  The  works  are  to  be  commenced 
at  once.  In  the  canton  of  Neuchatel, 
the  river  Reuss,  which  comes  down  the 
Val  de  Travers,  is  going  to  be  com- 
pletely utilized  in  four  successive  plants, 


its  first  venture,  decided  in  1892  to 
establish  on  the  Rhone,  about  6  kilo- 
meters (nearly  4  miles)  down  stream, 
new  works,  very  much  more  powerful 
than  those  previously  built.  A  short 
description  of  the  locality  will  render 
the  adopted  plans  clearer.  The  first 
works,  mentioned  above,  were  situated 
in  the  town  itself.  But,  at  a  point  1500 
meters  (5000  feet;  below  the  town,  the 
clear  blue  Rhone  receives  the  river 
Arve  which  descends  from  Mont  Blanc. 
The  waters  of  this  river,  coming  direct 
from  the  glacier,  are  as  troubled  as 


THK   STONEY   DAM   NEAR    GENEVA,    BUILT   IN    1895. 


each  to  develop  1000  horse-power. 
This  power  will  supply  the  wants  of  the 
towns  of  Neuchatel,  Chaux  de  Fonds 
and  Locle,  and  also  of  all  the  Val  de 
Travers.  In  the  canton  of  Soleure  3000 
horse-power  will  be  obtained  in  a  short 
time  from  the  river  Aar  above  Soleure 
and  will  supply  that  town  and  its  neigh- 
bourhood. On  the  same  river,  at 
Viznau,  near  L,angenthal,  the  firm  of 
Siemens  &  Halske  is  constructing  works 
to  obtain  about  2000  horse- power  and 
to  distribute  it  in  the  neighbourhood. 

Examples  of  similar  undertakings 
could  be  multiplied.  The  town  of 
Geneva,  encouraged  by  the  success  of 


those  of  the  Rh6ne  are  limpid.  Beyond 
the  junction  of  the  two  rivers,  their 
waters  run  side  by  side,  without  mixing, 
for  about  a  kilometer  (0.6  mile),  form- 
ing a  blue  and  a  white  riband.  Thanks 
to  Geneva  Lake,  the  Rhone  has  a  flow 
of  water  varying  from  1 20  to  700  cubic 
meters  (4230  to  24,675  cubic  feet)  per 
second,  whereas  the  flow  of  the  Arve 
varies  from  20  to  1200  cubic  meters 
(700  to  42,300  cubic  feet)  per  second. 
Below  the  junction  of  the  two  rivers,  the 
Rhone  runs  deeply  cased  in  between  wild 
cliffs  for  several  miles,  and  this  has  al- 
lowed the  adoption  of  a  very  simple  plan 
for  the  establishment  of  the  new  works. 


EUROPEAN    WATER  POWER  INSTALLATIONS. 


329 


330 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


The  place  selected  for  setting  up  the 
dam  and  the  buildings  for  the  turbines, 
called  Chevres,  is  about  6  kilometers 
(nearly  4  miles)  below  the  former  works. 
The  width  of  the  river,  after  the  erection 
of  the  works,  will  be  130  meters,  or 
about  426  feet.  On  the  left  bank,  a 
Stoney  movable  dam,  the  same  as  that 
adopted  for  the  Manchester  canal,  in 
England,  allows  the  raising  of  the  level 
of  the  river.  The  dam,  which  is  go 
meters  (295  feet)  long,  is  connected 
with  the  right  bank  by  the  building  con- 
taining the  turbines.  This  building  is 
placed  in  a  skew  position  along  the 
supply  channel,  and,  in  connection  with 
the  Stoney  dam,  forms  a  complete  dam 
across  the  river. 

The  dam  has  six  openings,  each  10 
meters  (about  33  feet)  wide.  Each 
opening  can  be  closed  ad  libitum  by  a 
sluice,  8  meters  (about  26  feet)  high. 
The  sluices  are  in  one  piece,  hung  with 
counterweights,  and  slide  on  rollers. 
Thanks  to  this,  they  are  easily  lifted  or 
let  down  by  two  men,  in  spite  of  the 
enormous  pressure  of  water  which  they 
bear.  The  fall  produced,  by  the  dam 
varies  with  the  seasons.  It  is  8  meters, 
or  about  26  feet,  high  in  winter,  and 
diminishes  to  4.50  meters,  or  about  15 
feet,  in  summer. 

The  building  for  the  turbines  is  150 
meters  (492  feet)  long  and  will  eventu- 
ally contain  15  turbines  of  1200  horse- 
power each.  To  obtain  a  sufficient 
velocity  for  directly  working  the  dy- 
namos which  they  set  in  motion,  each 
turbine  is  composed  really  of  two  tur- 
bines of  600  horse-power,  placed  one 
above  the  other  on  the  same  shaft.  In 
winter,  when  the  fall  is  highest,,  the 
lower  turbine  alone  is  open  ;  in  summer, 
when  the  fall  is  less,  the  two  turbines 
work  simultaneously.  The  wheels  were 
constructed  by  the  Messrs.  Escher, 
Wyss  &  Co.,  of  Zurich. 


The  dynamos,  constructed  by  the 
Compagnie  de  1' Industrie  Electrique  de 
Geneve,  are  on  the  two-phase  system. 
Each  turbine-shaft  carries  two  dynamos 
of  600  horse  power.  The  teeth  of  one 
of  the  wheels  are  displaced  by  a  quarter 
of  the  pitch  with  respect  to  those  of  the 
other  wheel  and  each  has  a  separate 
exciting  current  so  as  to  be  able  to  vary 
the  load  of  each  machine  without  in- 
convenience. The  weight  of  each  dy- 
namo is  about  70,000  kilog. ,  or  about 
154,000  Ibs. 

The  armature  is  fixed,  and  the  re- 
volving part,  weighing  16,000  kilogs., 
or  about  35,200  Ibs.,  contains  no  wire 
and  is  only  a  mass  of  revolving  steel. 
The  speed  of  rotation  is  80  revolutions 
per  minute.  All  the  dynamos  may  be 
coupled  in  parallel.  The  aerial  trans- 
mission, 6  kilometers,  about  3^  miles, 
long,  mounted  on  iron  posts,  is  com- 
posed of  return  wires  concentric  with 
the  outgoing  wires,  so  as  to  reduce 
induction  as  much  as  possible.  The 
transmission  for  light  will  be  independ- 
ent of  the  power  transmission.  The 
tension  is  2400  volts. 

These  new  works  of  the  town  of 
Geneva,  which  will  make  another 
18,000  horse-power  available,  are  nearly 
completed.  The  first  three  turbines 
are  being  erected  and  the  dynamos  are 
ready,  so  that  the  machines  will  be 
started  during  this  summer.  The  works 
have  been  carried  out  under  my  direc- 
tion by  M.  Butticaz,  chief  engineer  of 
the  Geneva  water  and  water-power 
works.  They  will  be  the  most  impor- 
tant in  existence  after  those  at  Niagara 
Falls,  but  they  are  very  far  from  rival- 
ling them.  My  purpose  in  writing  these 
lines  has  been  to  furnish  a  point  of 
comparison  which  would  allow  one  to 
gauge  the  immense  advantages  of  the 
gigantic  instrument  which  American 
industry  now  possesses. 


€ 
I 


S.  PAN  A  GREENE  is  a  U.  S.  Naval  Academy 
graduate,  and  resigned  from  the  Navy  in  1887 
to  become  assistant,  and  later,  chief  engineer 
of  one  of  the  prominent  electric  establish- 
ments. He  is  now  assistant  general  manager 
of  the  General  Klectric  Company. 


•WINTER    AT   THE   FALLS. 


DISTRIBUTION    OF   THE     ELECTRICAL 

NIAGARA   FALLS. 


ENERGY    FROM 


By  S.  Dana  Greene,  Electrical  Engineer. 


HE  utilization  of  at  least  a 
portion  of  the  enormous 
amount  of  energy  which, 
in  the  parlance  of  this 
practical  age,  ' '  runs  to 
waste  "  annually  over  the 
Falls  of  Niagara,  has  been 
written  and  talked  of, 
studied  and  suggested, 
for  the  past  hundred 
|  \  years.  It  has  been  re- 
served, however,  for  those 
of  us  who  will  see  the 
nineteenth  century 
rounded  out  and  the 
twentieth  ushered  in,  to 
witness  the  practical  ac- 
complishment of  this 
great  undertaking. 

Other  articles  in  this  magazine  tell 
of  the  engineering  skill,  perseverance 
and  ingenuity  which,  combined,  have 
helped  to  bring  about  the  harnessing 
of  Niagara.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this 
article  to  point  out  some  of  the  appli- 
cations to  which  the  electric  energy 


generated  at  the  Falls  has  already  been 
put,  and  to  discuss  other  applications 
which  suggest  themselves  as  probabili- 
ties or  possibilities.  These  applications 
can  be  broadly  divided  into  two  classes  : 
(i)  Those  which  are  undertaken  near 
the  generating  station,  within  a  radius 
of,  say,  ten  miles.  (2)  Those  which 
necessitate  a  transmission  of  the  power 
for  a  distance  of  .  more  than  ten  miles 
before  it  is  utilized. 

The  first  class  offers  a  tempting  field 
to  those  practical  men  who  prefer  pres- 
ent certainties  to  future  possibilities  ; 
while  the  second  class  presents  an  array 
of  scientific  problems,  and  of  theoretical 
and  empirical  studies  and  calculations 
which  are  attracting  the  attention  of  the 
whole  engineering  world.  Time  alone 
can  tell  how  many  of  these  problems 
will  be  solved,  and  how  far  practical  re- 
sults will  verify  the  theoretical  figures. 
We  may,  however,  assume  with  reason- 
able certainty,  that  as  the  science  of 
electricity,  which  is  yet  young,  ad- 
vances from  year  to  year,  the  area  of 

333 


334 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


THE   ELECTRIC   PLANT   OF   THE   PITTSBURGH    REDUCTION   COMPANY   AT   NIAGARA. 


influence  of  the  Niagara  power  will  be 
constantly  extended,  until  that  historic 
and  picturesque  spot  becomes  a  true 
electrical  Mecca.  When  this  result 
shall  have  been  accomplished,  the  far- 
seeing  business  sagacity  and  engineer- 
ing talent  of  those  who  have  launched 
the  present  enterprise  will  bear  their 
fruit,  while  the  capitalists  who  have 
boldly  invested  their  millions  will  have 
their  proper  reward  in  a  handsome  and 
ever-increasing  return  on  their  invest- 
ment. 

Before  discussing  in  detail  the  two 
classes  of  application  already  mentioned, 
it  is  well  to  glance  at  some  of  the 
broader  questions  involved.  The  elec- 
tric motor  is  already  well-known  as  a 
piece  of  commercial  apparatus.  Thou- 
sands of  them  are  in  daily  use,  having 
displaced  steam  and  gas  engines  and 
other  forms  of  power  motors.  It  is 
compact,  easily  cared  for,  very  reliable, 
and,  with  a  continuous  rotary  motion, 
it  can  be  applied  to  its  work  with  a 
minimum  of  expense  and  complication. 
For  reliability,  simplicity  and  certainty 
of  operation,  it  stands  without  a  peer 
in  the  motor  field.  It  follows,  as  a 
matter  of  business,  that  industrial  power 
consumers  can,  with  profit,  substitute 
the  electric  motor  for  that  which  they 
now  use,  provided  the  electric  power 
can  be  delivered  to  the  motor  at  a  cost 


less  than  that  now  paid  for  other  power, 
including  the  cost  of  operating  and 
maintaining  the  motor. 

Such  a  change  of  motive  power  has 
been,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  progressing 
actively  for  the  past  five  years,  espe- 
cially in  the  larger  cities,  where  a  net- 
work of  wires,  either  overhead  or  under- 
ground, has  gradually  covered  the  terri- 
tory like  a  system  of  gas  or  water  pipes, 
ready  to  be  tapped  for  any  consumer  who 
desires  to  use  the  electric  power.  The 
extent  to  which  the  change  has  been 
effected  is  not  generally  realized.  Thus 
in  New  York,  it  is  estimated  that  not 
less  than  8000  horse-power  in  electric 
motors  are  at  present  in  use,  the  motors 
varying  in  size  from  Y%  horse-power  to 
100  horse-power  ;  in  Brooklyn  about 
4000  horse-power  are  employed,  while 
25,000  horse-power  additional  in  motors 
are  used  in  that  city  for  electric  traction 
purposes. 

In  many  large  industrial  manufactur- 
ing establishments  it  has  been  found 
economical  to  generate  electric  power 
in  a  central  power  station,  and  then 
distribute  it  throughout  the  various 
shops,  electric  motors  being  utilized 
to  operate  the  lines  of  shafting,  heavy 
tools,  cranes,  rolling  mills,  etc.  In  all 
of  these  applications,  the  reason  for  the 
change  in  power  is  found,  first,  in  the 
ease  and  economy  with  which  the  elec- 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  NIAGARA   ENERGY. 


335 


trie  power  can  be  transmitted ;  and, 
second,  in  the  high  efficiency  and  low 
cost  of  maintenance  of  the  electric 
motor.  Although  additional  conver- 
sions of  energy  are  involved,  these  con- 
versions are  accomplished  in  large  units, 


In  addition,  electricity  has  a  large, 
and  ever  widening  field  in  lighting, 
heating  and  cooking  ;  in  plating  and 
electrotyping  ;  in  the  smelting  and  re- 
duction of  refractory  ores  ;  and  in  sur- 
gical and  medical  work.  It  is,  in  fact, 


DIRECT-CURRKXT   SIDE   OF   THE    ROTARY   CONVERTERS    AND    THE    LOW-TENSION    SWITCHBOARDS. 


under  the  most  economical  conditions, 
so  that  there  is  an  actual  and  very 
important  saving  to  an  establishment 
using  electric  power  throughout,  in- 
stead of  steam,  or  compressed  air,  or 
rope  transmission. 


becoming  more  and  more  a  part  and 
parcel  of  our  every-day  practical  re- 
quirements, while  in  the  language  of 
the  patent  office,  ''new  and  useful" 
applications  are  in  daily  process  of  in- 
vention and  development. 


336 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


TWO   OF   THE   ROTARY  CONVERTKRS   AND   ALSO   TWO   OF   THE   STATIC   TRANSFORMERS   IN   THE 
PITTSBURGH   REDUCTION   COMPANY'S  PLANT. 


With  such  a  field  of  usefulness  for 
electric  power,  and  with  the  assurance 
of  the  best  technical  advice  attainable 
that  the  work  was  feasible  from  an  en- 
gineering standpoint,  and  that  the  cost 
was  not  at  all  prohibitive,  one  can  realize 
why  it  has  been  possible  to  secure 
capital  for  the  Niagara  power  plant ; 
and  as  the  present  power  house  stands 
ready  to  deliver  fifteen  thousand  horse- 
power in  electrical  energy,  with  an  ulti- 
mate capacity  of  fifty  thousand  horse- 
power (the  intake  canal  being  large 
enough  to  supply  two  power  houses  of 
this  capacity),  we  can  consider  the  near- 
by applications  of  power  about  to  be 
made. 

The  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company 
owns  somewhat  more  than  a  square 
mile  of  land  around  the  power  house, 
and  it  purposes  to  rent  or  sell  this  land 
to  industrial  establishments  desiring  to 
locate  there,  and  to  sell  them  electrical 
power,  available  for  twenty-four  hours 
a  day,  every  day  in  the  year,  at  a  price 
so  low  that  these  establishments  can 
afford  to  move  from  their  present  loca- 
tions and  sell  their  present  plants. 


The  power,  as  generated,  is  an  alter- 
nating two-phase  current  of  twenty- five 
cycles  per  second,  or  three  thousand 
alternations  per  minute,  the  electro- 
motive force,  or  electrical  pressure,  be- 
ing about  two  thousand  volts.  At  this 
voltage,  and  with  the  short  distances 
involved  in  local  distribution,  the  trans- 
mission involves  no  engineering  difficul- 
ties, electrical  or  otherwise  ;  in  fact,  it  is 
similar  to  many  such  transmissions  in 
various  cities  and  towns.  Many  in- 
quiries have  been  received  from  all 
parts  of  the  country  asking  for  informa- 
tion as  to  the  character  and  cost  of  the 
power  service,  the  amount  of  power 
available,  etc. 

Two  manufacturing  establishments 
have  already  closed  contracts,  erected 
new  plants  on  the  ground,  and  are  about 
ready  to  start  operations,  viz. :  the  Pitts- 
burgh Reduction  Company,  of  Pitts- 
burgh, manufacturers  of  aluminium,  .re- 
quiring 2006  horse-power ;  and  the  Car- 
borundum Company,  also  of  Pittsburgh, 
manufacturers  of  carborundum,  a  variety 
of  emery,  requiring  1000  horse-power. 
As  each  of  these  companies  will  utilize 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  NIAGARA    ENERGY. 


337 


the  electric  current  for  a  special  purpose, 
each  differing  entirely  from  the  other,  a 
brief  description  of  the  two  plants  will 
be  of  interest. 

The  Pittsburgh  Reduction  Company 
produces  pure  aluminium, — a  metal 
which  is  beginning  to  attract  favourable 
attention — from  alumina,  an  oxide  of 
aluminium,  by  smelting  the  latter  with 
the  proper  flux,  in  carbon-lined  retorts 
or  crucibles,  the  mass  being  liquefied 
and  the  aluminium  reduced  by  an  elec- 
tric current,  passing  from  a  series  of 
carbon  rods  suspended  over  the  top  of 
the  crucible  and  forming  one  pole  of  the 
circuit,  to  the  carbon  lining  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  crucible  which  forms  the 
other  pole.  The  current  required  is 
what  is  commonly  called  a  direct  cur- 
rent, the  voltage,  or  pressure,  at  the 
terminals  in  the  reducing  room  being 
maintained  constant  at  160  volts,  and 
about  60  retorts  being  placed  around  the 
room  in  series  with  one  another. 

As  the  current,  delivered  to  the  Pitts- 
burgh Reduction  Company  by  the 
power  company,  is  of  the  two-phase 


variety,  alternating,  at  2000  volts  press- 
ure, it  is  necessary  to  reduce  this 
pressure  and  then  transform  the  current 
from  alternating  to  direct.  The  first 
change  is  accomplished  by  passing  the 
current  through  large  ' '  static  trans- 
formers," built  on  the  principle  of  the 
Rhumkorff  coil,  by  which  the  voltage 
is  reduced  from  2000  to  115.  The 
current  is  then  passed  through  a 
' '  rotary  converter, ' '  where  it  is  changed 
from  a  two-phase  alternating  current  at 
115  volts  to  a  direct,  or  continuous, 
current  at  160  volts.  The  rotary  con- 
verter is  a  direct-current  generator, 
with  the  addition  of  proper  collecting 
rings  and  connections  on  the  rear  of  the 
armature,  by  which  the  alternating  cur- 
rent is  led  into  the  machine.  It  may 
be  considered,  in  fact,  as  a  motor  and 
generator  in  one  machine.  The  illustra- 
tions on  pages  334  to  337  show  the 
power  room  of  the  Pittsburgh  Reduc- 
tion Company's  planj:,  with  the  ap- 
paratus installed  and  ready  to  operate. 
The  plant  has  a  capacity,  on  the  direct- 
current  side,  of  10,000  amperes  at  160 


THE  ALTERNATING  CURRENT  SIDE  OF  THE  ROTARY  CONVERTERS,  THE  ALTERNATING  CURRENT 
SWITCHBOARDS  AND  THE  STATIC  TRANSFORMERS. 


GASSIER' S  MAGAZINE. 


ONE  THOUSAND   HORSE-POWER   STATIC    TRANSFORMER   AT   THE    WORKS    OF  THE    CARBORUNDUM 
COMPANY.      BUILT   BY   THE   GENERAL   ELECTRIC   CO.     NEW   YORK. 


volts,  or  1 600  kilowatts,*  or  about  2000 
electrical  horse-power. 

The  Carborundum  Company  utilizes 
electricity  in  a  different  way.  A  large 
core  of  carbon,  about  8  feet  high  and  a 
square  foot  in  cross  section,  is  placed 
vertically  in  a  large  smelting  furnace, 
and  around  this  core  is  packed  the 
carborundum  ore.  An  alternating  elec- 

*  A  kilowatt  (one  thousand  watts)  is  the  electrical 
unit  of  power.  An  electrical  horse-power,  746  watts, 
is  about  %  of  a  kilowatt. 


trie  current  is  then  passed  through  the 
core  from  end  to  end,  the  core  being 
gradually  brought  to  an  intense  (white) 
heat.  This  heat  is  kept  up  for  about 
twelve  hours,  the  carborundum  being 
gradually  reduced  from  the  ore,  in 
crystalline  form. 

The  crystals  are  taken  from  the  fur- 
nace, ground  to  a  powder  and  pressed 
and  moulded  in  various  forms  for  use 
as  emery.  The  Carborundum  plant 


BTIV-EHSITT 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  NIAGARA  ENERG 


339 


consists  of  a  1000  horse-power  static 
transformer,  by  which  the  voltage  is 
reduced  from  2000  to  100  and  200 
volts,  and  a  special  regulator  of  about 
the  same  size,  by  which  the  voltage  at 
the  core  of  the  furnace  is  varied  as  the 
resistance  of  the  core  changes,  owing  to 
its  change  of  temperature,  the  current 
being  maintained  about  constant.  The 
illustrations  on  pages  338  to  341  and  on 
page  348,  show  this  apparatus  in  com- 
pleted form.  The  Carborundum  plant 
is  unique,  both  on  account  of  the  way 
in  which  the  electric  power  is  utilized 
and  also  on  account  of  the  size  of  the 
static  transformer  and  regulator,  .which 
are  the  largest  pieces  of  apparatus  of 
the  kind  ever  built. 

Static  transformers  of  the  size  used 
in  these  two  installations   (270  horse- 
power and   1000  horse-power  respect- 
ively) require  some  artificial  method  of 
cooling,   for,    notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  the  transformers  have  an  efficiency 
of  from  97  to  98  per  cent.,  the  energy 
transformed  into  heat  is,  nevertheless, 
so   great   that   there   is   not    sufficient 
radiating  surface  to  carry  it   off,   and 
the  temperature  at  full  load  would  soon 
rise  to  such  a  point  as  to   endanger,  if 
not  destroy,  the  apparatus.     Two  dif- 
ferent   plans    of     cooling    have    been 
adopted.     In  the  Pittsburgh  reduction 
transformers  a  blast    of  air   is   forced 
constantly  through  the   numerous   in- 
terstices between  the  coils,  from  below, 
and  the  heat  is  thus  easily  controlled. 
The    Carborundum     transformer    is 
cooled  by  a  continuous  circulation  of 
oil.      The   transformer   is   placed  in  a 
cylindrical   iron    case,    standing    on   a 
ring  about  6  inches  high  from  the  bot- 
tom of  the  case.     Oil  is  forced  into  the 
transformer  from  the  bottom,  and  up 
through    its    interstices,    until    it  flows 
over  the  top  and  into  the  surrounding 
case.      It    is    then   drawn   off,    passed 
through  a  cooling  coil  surrounded  by 
running    water    and    is    again    forced 
through  the  transformer.     The  result- 
ing decrease  in  the  temperature  rise  is 
the  same  as  in  the  case  of  the  air  blast. 
In  either  case  the  amount  of  power  re- 
quired for  the  air  blast  or  for  the  oil 
circulation  is  very  small — less  than  ^ 


per  cent,  of  th 
former. 

Another    applic. 
made  of  the  power 
the  electric  road  at  i\ 
also  of  that  now  being  p> 
pletion,  as  a  rapid  transit 
Buffalo   and   the    Falls. 


^acity  of  the  trans- 


about    to    be 
*  operation  of 
*a  Falls,  and 
1  to  com- 


ANOTHER  VIEW  OF  THE  STATIC  TRANSFORMER. 

horse-power  in  rotary  converters  will 
be  required  for  this  work,  in  500  horse- 
power units,  transforming  the  alternat- 
ing into  direct  or  continuous  current  at 
500  volts.  The  electric  lighting  sta- 
tion and  the  water  works  at  the  Falls 
will  probably  also  utilize  the  power  at 
an  early  date. 

With  nearly  5000  horse-power  con- 
tracted for  locally,  and  with  the  prob- 
able demands  in  the  near  future  for 
other  new  plants,  as  well  as  for  exten- 
sions to  those  already  installed,  it  is 
reasonably  certain  that  from  10,000  to 
15,000  horse-power  will  be  required  in 
a  year  to  supply  the  demands  of  con- 
sumers within  a  radius  of  three  miles 


340 


GASSIER JS  MAGAZINE. 


THE  INTERNAL  MAKE-UP   OF  THE  CARBORUNDUM   CO.'S   LARGE   STATIC   TRANSFORMER.      THIS 

TRANSFORMER  REDUCES  THE  PRESSURE  OF  THE  TWO-PHASE  ALTERNATING 

CURRENT  FROM  2400  TO  20O  VOLTS. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  NIAGARA    ENERGY. 


34i 


of  the  power  station .  Between  Niagara 
Falls  and  Tonawanda — a  distance  of 
about  ten  miles — is  an  open,  farming 
country,  which  is  already  being  bought 
up  for  the  purpose  of  cutting  it  up  for 
manufacturing  sites.  Tonawanda  itself, 
which  may  be  considered  within  the 
radius  of  what  has  been  classed  as 
"near-by  distribution,"  has  special  ad- 
vantages as  a  manufacturing  centre. 
Ten  thousand  additional  horse-power 


The  consumers  will  reap  the  benefit  of 
very  cheap  power,  available  at  any 
hour,  day  or  night,  while  the  Power 
Company  will  be  assured  of  a  definite 
revenue,  without  the  large  expenditure 
necessary  for  heavy  transmission  lines 
and  their  accessories. 

The  applications  of  power  thus  far 
suggested  or  discussed  are  such  as 
come  substantially  within  the  present 
stage  of  electrical  development,  and 


THE   CARBORUNDUM   COMPANY'S   ONE   THOUSAND   HORSE-POWER   CURRENT   REGULATOR. 


is  a  reasonable  estimate  of  the  power 
that  will  be  utilized  in  this  territory,  so 
that  it  seems  fair  to  predict  that  in  five 
years,  with  moderately  prosperous 
business  conditions,  the  "near-by" 
consumers  of  power  will  aggregate 
about  25,000  horse-power.  This  power 
will  be  distributed  and  used  on  the 
general  lines  already  developed  in 
other  places,  except  that  the  individual 
consumers  will  be  larger  users.  No 
radically  new  electrical  engineering 
problems  are  involved,  and  the  cost  of 
distribution  will  be  relatively  small. 


have  little  about  them,  therefore,  to 
cause  distrust  of  their  successful  out- 
come, financially  or  otherwise,  even  in 
the  minds  of  those  who  have  given  no 
special  attention  either  to  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  electrical  art  in  general 
or  to  the  development  of  this  great 
power  plant  in  particular. 

We  come  now  to  the  second  and 
larger  phase  of  the  subject — the  trans- 
mission of  the  power  from  Niagara  to 
Buffalo  and  points  beyond,  where,  in 
order  that  its  sale  may  be  rendered  the 
more  profitable  by  reason  of  the  quan- 


342 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  NIAGARA   ENERGY. 


343 


PUTTING   DOWN  CABLE  CONDUITS   AT   NIAGARA. 


tity  consumed,  it  must  successfully  dis- 
place existing  power  plants  of  all  de- 
scriptions, including  even  the  local 
electric  lighting  and  railway  plants  at 
present  operated  by  steam,  and  must 
establish  and  prove  its  claim  of  superior 
economy  and  of  equal  or  superior  re- 
liability and  continuity  of  service.  It 
is  the  solution  of  this  problem  that  de- 
mands the  attention  of  electrical  engi- 
neers, and  the  results  will  determine 
whether  the  present  power  house  at 
Niagara,  with  its  ultimate  capacity  of 
50,000  horse-power,  shall  be  only 
the  beginning  or  the  end  of  the  enter- 
prise. 

It  is  instructive  to  study  the  map  and 
consider  the  geographical  and  com- 
mercial possibilities  of  different  areas 
of  distribution,  with  Niagara  as  a  cen- 
tre. From  this  point,  on  the  map 
shown  opposite  this  page,  circles  have 
been  drawn  with  radii  of  100,  200,  300, 
400  and  500  miles.  Table  I.  gives 
interesting  data  of  several  areas  so  cir- 


cumscribed,   including  areas  with   the 
smaller  radii  of  25,  50  and  75  miles. 


Approxi- 

Approxi- 

Number 

mate  Ks- 

mate  Area 

of  Cities 

timate  of 

RADIUS 

in  Square 

Within 

Population 

Horse- 

IN 

Miles 

this  Area 

or  Same 

Power  at 

MILES. 

(United 

of  5000 

(Ce'nsus  1890) 

Present 

States 
Only). 

People 
or  More 

Used 
in  these 

Cities. 

25 

960 

4 

282,806 

69,000 

50 

2.  goo 

7 

305,000 

76,750 

75 

6,300 

10 

470.000 

111,700 

100 

11,500 

16 

543,000 

143,700 

150 

27,700 

34 

825,000 

261,500 

200 

55.500 

69" 

1,756,000 

521,000 

300 

196  ooo 

198 

8,246,000 

1,967,000 

400 

272,000 

342 

11,150,000 

2,733,ooo 

About  one-fifth  of  the  population  of 
the  United  States  is  included  within  a 
radius  of  400  miles  from  Niagara.  The 
conditions  controlling  the  commercial 
delivery  of  power  to  a  point  within  any 
of  the  areas  given  depend  upon  the 
answers  to  the  following  questions: 


344 


CASSS£R'S  MAGAZINE. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  NIAGARA   ENERGY. 


345 


1.  What  amount   of  power   can  be 
sold,   provided  it  is  delivered?     That 
is,  what  are  the  local  demands  ? 

2.  Are  the  transmission  and  delivery 
to  the  desired  points  practicable  from 
an  engineering  standpoint  ? 

3.  If  the  power   can    be    delivered 
successfully,    can   it    be    sold    by   the 
Power  Company  at  such  a  figure  as  to 
compete  with  the  price  of  power  gen- 
erated locally  ;  that   is,    compete  with 
the  large  and  economical  local  power 
plants,  such   as  electric  light  and  rail- 
way stations  and  city  water  works,  as 
well  as  with  the  small  and  comparatively 
wasteful   users?     The    latter    class    of 
power  consumers  are,  of  course,  much 
more  numerous  in  point  of  numbers, 
but    not    necessarily   so    in    point    of 
amount  of  power  consumed  throughout 
the  twenty-four  hours. 

The  first  question  can  be  answered 
only  by  a  local  investigation  and  can- 
vass of  the  power  users,  their  present 
consumption  and  the 
probable  annual  growth 
of  this  consumption. 
This  latter  point  is  of 
importance,  for  the 
transmission  line  and 
transformer  stations 
should  be  built  so  as 
to  provide  for  reason- 
able growth  in  demands 
for  a  period  of  from  five 
to  ten  years.  It  should 
not  be  necessary  to 
erect  new  buildings,  nor 
to  provide  new  pole 
lines  or  conduits  for 
this  growth;  they 
should  be  built  of  such 
a  capacity  as  to  make 
it  necessary  only  to  in- 
stall additional  appara- 
tus or  additional  cop- 
per wire  in  the  stations 
or  on  the  pole  lines  ori- 
ginally provided.  The 
following  table  gives  an 
idea  of  the  demands  for 
power  in  some  of  the 
principal  cities  included 
in  Table  I.  on  page  343. 

The  second  question, 


II. 


CITY. 

Popula- 
tion, 
Census 
1890. 

Distance 
by  Wire 
from.  Niag- 
ara Falls 
to  City 
limits. 

Esti- 
mated 
Horse- 
Power 
Used. 

Buffalo,  N.  Y... 

256,000 

15 

30,000 

Rochester,  N.  Y__._ 
Krie,  Pa 

134,000 
41  ooo 

78 
113 

25,000 
8  ooo 

Ashtabula,  O  

84,000 

150 

5,000 

Syracuse,  N.  Y  

88,000 

1^2 

20  ooo 

Utica,  N.  Y  

44,000 

203 

7,000 

Cleveland,  O      .  

261,000 

213 

45,000 

Pittsburgh,  Pa  
Akron,  O  

239  ooo 
28,000 

240 
253 

65,000 
5,000 

Schenectady,  N.  Y.. 
Sandusky,   O  

20,000 
18,500 

28l 
281 

8,000 
5,000 

Albany,  N.  Y  

95  ooo 

3°9 

15,000 

Total 

238,000 

regarding  the  engineering  possibilities, 
is  a  vital  one,  and  demands  careful 
consideration.  Apart  from  engineer- 
ing problems  pure  and  simple,  it  is 
to  be  remembered  that  the  transmis- 
sion line  to  any  of  the  points  men- 
tioned in  Table  I.  must  pass  through 


CROSS  SECTION  OF   A  CABLE   CONDUIT. 


346 


CASSIER'S   MAGAZINE. 


AN   ALTERNATING   CURRENT   INDUCTION   MOTOR,    GEARED   TO   A   HOIST. 


a  more  or  less  populous  country,  and 
if  the  necessary  voltage  or  pressure 
of  the  current  is  so  high,  or  if  the 
pole  lines  and  conductors  must  be  of 
such  a  size  and  so  placed,  that  the 
insulation  of  the  line  cannot  be  main- 
tained, or  danger  to  human  life  cannot 
be  avoided  by  any  reasonable  precau- 
tion, then  the  transmission  cannot  be 
considered  practicable  commercially.. 

Precedents  are  always  of  value  in 
studying  the  solutions  of  engineering 
problems,  and  it  is  interesting  to  con- 
sider briefly  two  remarkable  long-dis- 
tance transmissions  of  power  in  success- 
ful operation  in  the  United  States, 
although  neither  are  electric  transmis- 
sions, and  each  differs  materially  from 
the  other.  One  is  the  transmission  of 
oil  by  pipe-line,  from  the  natural  oil 
fields  of  New  York,  Ohio  and  Pennsyl- 
vania, to  tide-water,  a  distance  of  over 
400  miles.  The  other  is  the  transmis- 


sion of  natural  gas,  also  by  pipe-line, 
from  the  Indiana  fields  to  the  city  of 
Chicago,  a  distance  of  about  120  miles. 

The  piping  of  oil,  first  from  the  in- 
dividual oil  wells  to  storage  centres,  and 
then  from  these  storage  centres  to  tide- 
water, has  been  a  process  of  gradual 
development  for  the  last  thirty  years. 
The  necessity  for  what  may  be  called 
the  "collecting  system"  of  pipes  was 
felt  shortly  after  the  discovery  of  the 
natural  oil  wells,  and  arose  from  the 
rough  and  mountainous  character  of 
the  oil  country,  which  made  the  ques- 
tion of  transportation  an  exceedingly 
difficult  one.  The  individual  wells  were 
gradually  connected  by  feed  pipes  to 
larger  trunk  lines,  which  carry  the  oil 
to  the  storage  centres. 

The  largest  of  these  centres  is  at 
Olean,  N.Y.,  about  seventy-five  miles 
from  Buffalo.  There  the  Standard  Oil 
Company  have  large  storage  tanks,  with 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  NIAGARA   ENERGY. 


347 


an  aggregate  capacity  of  nearly  9,000,- 
ooo  barrels  of  oil,  and  from  this  point 
starts  the  great  trunk  line,  composed  of 
three  6-inch  wrought  iron  pipes,  run- 
ning to  tide- water  in  New  York  harbor, 
where  the  oil  is  loaded  into  tank  steam- 
ers and  shipped  all  over  the  world. 
There  are  twelve  pumping  stations 
^along  this  trunk  line,  situated  about  35 
"miles  apart,  and  both  the  pumps,  the 
pipe-lines  and  the  subsidiary  fittings 
are  marvels  of  mechanical  ingenuity  and 
perfection.  The  pumps  operate  at  a 
pressure  of  about  1000  pounds  per 
square  inch,  and  the  capacity  of  the  line 
is  about  30,000  barrels  a  day. 

The  main  pipe-line  is  divided  into 
divisions  and  sections,  much  like  a 
trunk  railway  system,  and  has,  simi- 
larly, its  division  superintendents  and 
engineers,  section  foremen,  line  gangs 
and  line  walkers,  telegraph  stations  and 
daily  reports.  The  system  works 
smoothly  and  quietly,  and  as  the  pipes 
are  buried  under  ground  from  one  to 
two  feet,  and  run  through  a  sparsely 


settled  country,  the  general  public  sees 
or  hears  but  little  of  the  system. 

A  trunk  line  runs  from  the  Ohio 
fields  to  Chicago,  another  line  has  been 
projected  from  these  fields  to  St.  Louis, 
and  two  other  lines  run  from  West  Vir- 
ginia and  Pennsylvania  to  Philadelphia 
and  Baltimore.  The  object  of  the  pipe- 
lines is  to  cheapen  the  handling  and 
transportation  of  oil  to  the  great  con- 
sumption centres  of  the  country,  and 
while  there  is  no  general  distribution 
system  at  the  point  of  delivery,  the  line, 
nevertheless,  can  properly  be  considered 
as  a  transmission  of  power  on  a  large 
scale,  where  the  difficulties  of  transmis- 
sion are  many  and  great. 

The  natural  gas  pipe  line  is,  perhaps, 
a  more  simple  example  of  long-distance 
power  transmission,  and  bears  many 
striking  points  of  resemblance  to  trans- 
mission by  electricity.  The  Indiana 
gas  field  covers  a  territory  in  the  north- 
ern part  of  the  State,  about  38  miles 
long  and  18  miles  wide.  There  are 
about  60  wells  in  operation,  having  an 


AN   ELECTRIC   DIAMOND    DRILL   FOR   PROSPECTING   WORK. 


348 


GASSIER  >S  MAGAZINE. 


FRAME  OF  THE  LARGE  REGULATOR  OF  THE  CARBORUNDUM  CO.   (SEE  PAGE  339.) 


average  daily  capacity  of  about  5,000,- 
ooo  cubic  feet  each.  As  in  the  oil 
fields,  so  here,  the  individual  wells  are 
connected  by  feed  pipes  to  a  supply 
line,  which  collects  the  gas  and  carries 
it  to  the  pumping-station  at  Greentown. 
There  large  compressors,  capable  of 
producing  and  sustaining  a  pressure  ot 
2000  pounds  per  square  inch,  force  the 
gas  into  the  transmission  line  to  Chi- 
cago. The  normal  pressure  carried 
on  this  line  is  300  pounds  per  square 
inch,  which  admits  of  a  daily  delivery 


of  10,000,000  to  12,000,000  cubic  feet 
of  gas  in  Chicago. 

Along  the  line,  which  consists  of  two 
8-inch  wrought-iron  pipes,  laid  2%  feet 
under  ground,  are  located  what  are 
known  as  ' '  by-pass ' '  stations,  about  20 
miles  apart.  At  the  "  by-pass  "  either 
of  the  two  main  lines  can  be  cut  off  and 
the  gas  sent  through  the  other  line. 
The  stations  are  also  utilized  as  head- 
quarters for  division  superintendents, 
telegraph  operators  and  repair  gangs. 
At  the  Indiana  State  line  the  pressure 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  NIAGARA    ENERGY. 


349 


is  automatically  reduced,  in  a  "regu- 
lating station,"  to  40  pounds,  at  which 
pressure  the  gas  is  carried  into  the  city 
by  two  lo-inch  wrought-iron  pipes. 
From  these  pipes  it  is  fed  into  an  ex- 
tensive system  of  distributing  mains, 
throughout  the  city,  the  pressure  being 
again  reduced  to  less  than  I  pound  per 
square  inch.  From  the  city  mains  the 
gas  is  delivered  to  individual  customers 
for  cooking,  heating  and  operating  gas 
engines,  and  for  applying  heat  under 


sional  man.     The  essential  engineering 
features  of  the  natural  gas  transmission 
are  : 

1.  An  initial  station  where  the  gas  is 
collected  from  the  wells  and  delivered  to 

2.  A  pumping  station  where  the  press- 
ure is  raised  to  a  high  point,  measured 
by  ordinary  practice,  in  order  to  per- 
mit of  the  transmission  of  a  large  vol- 
ume of  the  gas  a  great  distance,  with  a 
reasonable  and  practicable  size  of  trans- 
mission pipe  and  loss  in  transmission. 


AN   ELECTRICALLY   DRIVEN   BLOWER. 


steam  boilers,  at  a  price  much  cheaper 
than  the  ordinary  illuminating  gas. 

We  have  here  an  example  of  a  great 
natural  force  of  nature,  harnessed  by 
man,  carried  to  a  distant  point,  and 
there  distributed  and  sold  for  many 
purposes  and  to  many  customers,  at 
a  cost  below  that  of  the  same  force 
locally  produced  and  distributed.  The 
analogy  between  the  commercial  fea- 
tures of  this  transmission  and  that  of 
the  Niagara  power  (without  reference 
to  the  means  of  transmission)  is  clear 
and  striking,  even  to  the  non-profes- 


3.  A  duplicate  transmission  line,  with 
stations  every  20  miles,  where  a  section 
of  the  pipe  in  use  can  be  cut  out  for 
inspection  or  repairs,  the  station  also 
serving   as    headquarters    for   those    in 
charge  of  the  section. 

4.  A  line  construction  involving  the 
best  material  (much  of  it  specially  made) 
and  the   most  careful  work  of  installa- 
tion,   in  order  to  insure  continuity   of 
service  and  immunity  from  leaks,  breaks 
or  other  accidents. 

5.  A    "regulating   station"    at    the 
delivery  end,  where  the  high  and  dan- 


350 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


A  250  HORSE-POWER   THREE-PHASE   ALTERNATING   CURRENT   MOTOR. 


gerous  transmission  pressure  is  reduced 
to  one  that  can  be  safely  carried 
through  the  crowded  streets  of  a  great 
city. 

6.  A  distribution  system  in   the  city 
by  which  the  gas,  transmitted  whole- 

'sale,  is  distributed  retail  to  individual 
consumers. 

7.  Finally,  a  complete  and  thorough 
organization  for  the  care  and  preserva- 
tion of  the  plant,  including,  especially, 
a  continuous  and  minute  inspection  of 
the  transmission  line,  with  facilities  at 
every    "  by- pass  "    station   for   instant 
repair  ;  in  short,  every  facility  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  plant  in  a  high  state 
of  efficiency  and  repair. 

As  will  be  seen,  the  analogy  between 
these  salient  engineering  features  and 
those  which  will  distinguish  the  Niagara 
transmission  is  quite  as  marked  as  is 
the  commercial  analogy  already  noticed. 

Returning  now  to  the  engineering 
problems  of  the  Niagara  transmission, 
the  conductors  can  be  carried  either 
overhead,  on  a  pole  line  of  iron  or 


wood,  or  a  combination  of  iron  and 
wood,  or  underground,  through  a  sub- 
way, where  cables  are  laid  or  hung 
in  the  subway,  with  a  passageway  for 
inspection,  or  in  individual  underground 
pipes  or  tubes.  Where  the  conductors 
pass  through  a  city,  one  or  the  other 
of  the  underground  methods  will,  un- 
doubtedly, be  required,  but  for  the  main 
transmission  line,  across  country,  it  is 
quite  possible  to  construct  an  overhead 
line  so  substantial  as  to  reduce  to  a 
small  and  unimportant  factor  the  danger 
to  the  line  from  storms  of  wind,  rain, 
snow  or  sleet,  or  from  lightning.  We 
have  a  practical  example  of  such  a  line 
in  the  modern,  long-distance,  telephone 
trunk  lines,  which  are  the  finest  ex- 
amples of  line  construction  anywhere  in 
the  world,  and  some  of  which  are  more 
than  1000  miles  in  length. 

The  next  important  question  is  the 
size  and  insulation  of  copper  conduc- 
tors necessary.  Practical  considerations 
limit  the  size  of  a  wire  for  good  over- 
head construction  to  one  having  a  cross 


DISTRIBUTION   OF  NIAGARA    ENERGY. 


35 1 


sectional  area  of  something  less  than 
Y?,  square  inch  ;  and  if  a  greater  area 
be  necessary,  it  is  divided  among  two 
or  more  conductors.  The  area  of  con- 
ductor necessary  to  transmit  a  given 
amount  of  electric  power  a  given  dis- 
tance may  be  expressed  by  the  equa- 
tion : 

A  (area  in  square  inch)  =  CX  JVX  D 
(  EX  V 


ii 


In  this  C  represents  a  numerical  con- 
stant ;  TV"  the  number  of  electrical  horse- 
power to  be  delivered  ;  D  the  length  of 
transmission  line,  in  feet ;  E  the  elec- 
tromotive force  (or  pressure)  at  the 
delivery  end  of  the  line  ;  and  V  the 
loss  of  pressure  in  volts  on  the  line,  due 
to  its  resistance. 

This  equation  applies  strictly  to 
direct  currents,  and  while  the  transmis- 


CENTRIFUGAL   PUMP   WITH   DIRECT-CONNECTED   AIOTOR 


UNIVERSITY 


352 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 
TABLE    III. 


FROM 

To 

Distance  in  Miles. 

H.  P. 

VOLTAGK. 

Remarks. 

IO  O 

R 

<u 
a 

3 

40,000 
10,000 

In* 
1 

I^auffen  

Frankfort,  Germany  

105 

23 

19 
18 

18 

18 
|  4^ 

{     Q/2 

8 

7 

5 
3l/2 

20 
15 

9&M 

il 
7^ 

\v< 

4 
4 

3K 

3 
3 

3 
II 

5* 

15 

7 
13 

200 

2,000 
1  0.OOO 

9,000 
35o 

1,000 
«0> 
20  J 
400 
200 

450 

75 

IOO 

3,ooo 

1,000 

400 

10,000 

300 

800 
400 

400 

IOO 
IOO 

1,500 
125 

'    75 
300 

1,340 

150 
150 

150 

70 

Three-phase  alt.  current  plant 
for  Exposition    1892.    Vari- 
ous experiments  were  made 
on  this  line. 
Three-phase  Gen.   Elec.  Co., 
under  construction. 
Under  construction. 
Ganz     System,  in    operation 
three  years. 
Three-phase  G.  E.  Co.,  oper- 
ated three  years  at  5,000  v. 
on  line,  last  three  months 
at  11,000  volts. 
Ganz  System. 
Three-phase  G.  E.  Co.,  used 
in  mitiing  operations 
In  operation  three  years. 
Three-phase,     in      operation 
three  years. 
Three-phase  G.  E.  Co. 
Just  complete. 
Ganz  System. 
Three-phase  G.  E.  Co.  Co.  alt. 
current,  under  construction. 
Single-phase     Westinghouse, 
in  operation  four  years. 
Three-phase  G.  E.  Co  ,  under 
construction.    Operates  St. 
R.  R.  by  rotary  converters. 
Ditto. 
Three-phase    G.    E.    Co.,    in 
operation  T.%  years. 
Single-phase  Westinghouse. 
Three-phase    G.    E     Co.,    in 
operation  one  year. 
Ditto. 
Single-phase  G.  E.  Co.,  syn. 
motor. 
Three-phase  G.  E^  Co.,  under 
construction. 
Ditto. 
Three-phase  G.  E.   Co.,  run- 
ning three  months. 
Ditto. 
Three-phase  G.  E.  Co.,  oper- 
ates station  by  syn.  motor. 

Three-phase  G.  E.  Co.,  power 
distributed  by  18  indue,  mo- 
tors. 

Single-phase    Westinghouse, 
operates  lights  in  Pomona. 
Two-phase  Stanley  Co.,  oper- 
ates incandescent  lights  and 
induction  motors. 
•Single-phase     Westinghouse, 
Synchronous  motor. 

Water  Power 

Pachuca,  Mexico 

Water  Power 

Milan,  Italy  

Tivoli 

Rome,  Italy 

1,040 

2,500 
400 
50 

2,500 
2,900 

~8oo 
5,ooo 
365 

6,000 
2,500 

2,500 

2,200 
2,000 

2,080 

3300 
2,300 

2,200 
800 

600 
1,000 

5,500 
3,500 

5,000 

11,000 

8,000 
2,500 

5.000 
5,coo 

2,500 
2,900 
3,000 
11,500 

5,000 
5,000 

6,000 
2,500 

10,000 
2,500 

2,200 
2,OOO 

2,o8o 

3,300 
2,300 

2,200 
7,OOO 

600 

LO.OOO 
5,500 

3,500 

I,OOO 

±] 

IOO 

120 
I,OOO 

5,000 
550  D.C. 

'33 

1.  000 

,,,00 

2,000 

2;ooo 

3.300 

2,000 

2,000 
800 

550 

1,000 

1,000 

3,300 

Water  Power 

Guadalajara,  Mexico 

River  Gorzente  
Water  Power 

Genoa,   Italy.  

Santa  Rosalia,  Mexico  

Gringesberg,   Sweden  
Heilbronn,  Germany 

Water  Power 

I/auffen 

Richelieu  River  
Bleio  Schwegar  
Padenone 

at.  Hyacinthe,  Quebec  
Eucheim,   Germany  

Fiume,  Italy  

Folsam  

Sacramento,  Cal.,  U.  S  
Telluride,  Col.,  U.  S 

Water   Power 

Water  Power  

Lowell,  Mass.,  U.  S.  __.«_.. 
Portland,  Ore.,  U.  S... 

Oregon  City  

Mill  Creek 

Redlands.  Cal.,  U.  S  

San  Antonio  Canon. 
Baltic 

San  Antonio,  Cal.,  U.  S.. 
Taftville,  Couu.,U.  S 

Sewells  Falls 

Concord,  N.  H.   U.  S... 

Water  Power 

Walla  Walla,  Wash.,  U.  S. 
Canandaigua,  N.  Y.,  U.  S. 
Pelzer,  S.  C.,  U.  S  

Water  Power  

Water   Power 

Silverton,  Col.,  U.  S  
Bel  Air,  Md.,U  S 

Water  Power 

Water  Power  

Hartford,   Conn.,  U.  S  

Columbia     Cotton     Mills, 
Columbia,  S.  C.,  U.  S..... 

Pomona.  Cal.,  U.  S._  
Anderson,  S.  C.,  U.  S  

Mine  at  Bodie,  Cal.,  U.  S-. 

Water  Power 

San    Antonio,    Cal., 
U.  S 

Water  Power  
Water  Power  

Total,  44,105  horse-power. 


sion  of  alternating  currents  involves 
certain  other  losses  and  disturbances 
between  conductors,  they  need  not  be 
here  considered,  since  they  can  be  prac- 
tically neglected  by  a  proper  arrange- 
ment of  the  conductors  in  a  system 
such  as  is  here  contemplated. 

In  non- technical  language  the  equa- 


tion means  that  the  area  of  conductor, 
and,  hence  its  weight  and  cost,  varies 
directly  as  the  horse-power  delivered 
and  distance  transmitted,  and  inversely 
'as  the  electrical  pressure  at  the  delivery 
end  of  the  line  and  loss  of  pressure  in 
the  line.  It  follows  that  the  higher  we 
make  the  delivery,  and  subsequently 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  NIAGARA   ENERGY. 


353 


the  initial  pressure,  the  smaller  and  less 
costly  becomes  the  conductors.  The 
similarity  to  the  laws  governing  a  sim- 
ilar transmission  of  a  liquid,  or  gas,  is 
noticeable.  In  the  latter  case  the  limit 
of  pressure  carried  is  the  strength  of 
the  pipe-line  and  joints  ;  with  electricity 
the  limit  is  the  insulation  resistance  of 
the  conductors.  For  high  pressures, 


withstood  a  pressure  of  90,000  volts  be- 
fore puncture.  In  such  a  test,  how- 
ever, actual  conditions  of  weather  and 
atmosphere  cannot  be  fully  reproduced, 
and  a  safety  factor  of  two  is  not  too 
large  to  allow.  These  insulators  are 
sometimes  made  in  two  parts,  separated 
by  oil.  It  is  very  difficult,  however,  to 
keep  the  oil  perfectly  clean,  and  the 


SPECIAL   PORCELAIN   "  DOUBLE-PETTICOATED  "   INSULATOR   FOR   HIGH-TENSION 
TRANSMISSION   LINES. 


10,000  volts  or  more,  on  an  aerial  line, 
insolation  material  on  the  outside  of  a 
wire  cannot  be  depended  upon,  for, 
apart  from  the  fact  that  it  has  not  a 
sufficiently  high  inherent  resistance  to 
penetration,  the  weather  soon  deterio- 
rates the  insulation  material,  thus  low- 
ering its  resistance  to  such  a  point  as  to 
render  the  insulation  practically  useless. 
The  safest  and  best  plan  is  to  use 
bare  conductors,  depending  upon  the 
supports  at  the  poles  for  proper  insula- 
tion. These  supports  are  heavy,  "  dou- 
ble-petticoated ' '  porcelain  insulators, 
as  shown  on  this  page,  mounted  on  the 
wooden  cross-arms  of  the  pole,  like  the 
ordinary  glass  insulators  of  a  telegraph 
line.  Such  insulators  have  successfully 

13-3 


best  practice  to-day  is  to  use  air  separ- 
ation, which,  under  conditions  of  ser- 
vice, is  probably  more  reliable  than  a 
separation  by  oil. 

The  following  list  of  the  principal 
transmission  plants  installed  or  in  pro- 
cess of  installation  elsewhere  is  inter- 
esting as  showing  what  has  already 
been  done  up  to  date  : 

The  plant  which  at  once  attracts  at- 
tention in  Table  III.  is  the  Lauffen- 
Frankfort  transmission  of  200  horse- 
power over  a  distance  of  more  than  100 
miles,  and  at  a  maximum  line  pressure 
of  over  40,000  volts  (this  in  1892). 
While  it  is  true  that  this  transmission 
was  on  a  small  scale,  comparatively, 
and  while  it  was  more  or  less  experi- 


354 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


mental  in  character,  it  is  none  the  less 
significant  and  suggestive  of  what  can 
probably  be  done  to-day  on  a  large 
scale  with  the  wider  experience  and  im- 
proved methods  and  apparatus  of  to- 
day. The  next  highest  pressure  is  that 
on  the  Guadalajara  line,  where  11,000 
volts  are  successfully  employed.  The 
conductors  of  the  Lauffen- Frankfort 
line  were  bare  copper  overhead  wires, 
attached  to  oil  insulators  on  the  poles, 
similar  to  those  already  described. 

For  the  transmission  of  the  first 
10,000  horse-power  to  Buffalo  from 
Niagara  Falls,  it  has  been  practically 
decided  to  use  10,000  volts  at  the 
delivery  end.  Connections  will  be  ar- 
ranged at  each  end,  so  that  this  press- 
ure can  be  increased  to  20,000  volts, 
if  desired.  For  points  beyond  Buffalo, 
it  will,  undoubtedly,  be  necessary  to 
raise  the  delivery  pressure  still  higher, 
in  order  to  keep  the  cost  of  conductors 
within  practicable  limits,  and  for  dis- 
tances of  200  miles  or  more,  the  maxi- 


mum Lauffen  -  Frankfort  pressure  of 
40,000  volts  must  be  equalled  or  ex- 
ceeded. As  the  increase  in  the  use  of 
Niagara  power,  however,  will  neces- 
sarily be  gradual,  the  pressure  used, 
and  hence  the  limiting  distance  of  trans- 
mission, can  be  increased  as  rapidly  as 
experience  with  lines  already  installed 
demonstrates  that  it  is  feasible  and 
economical  to  do  so. 

Having  determined  the  delivery  volt- 
age to  be  used,  the  only  undetermined 
factor  in  the  equation  fixing  the  area  of 
conductors,  and  hence  their  weight  and 
cost,  is  the  loss  of  pressure  in  volts 
on  the  line.  Obviously  we  can  reduce 
this  loss  indefinitely  by  increasing  the 
area  of  conductors,  but  this  increase  can 
be  carried  too  far,  and  the  economical 
point  is  where  the  annual  charges  for 
interest,  depreciation  and  repairs  on 
the  whole  line  (conductors,  pole  line 
and  labour  of  construction)  equals  the 
money  value  of  the  power  lost  in  trans- 
mission. This  is  known  as  Kelvin's 


A   DIRECT  CURRENT   ELECTRIC   MOTOR,    GEARED   TO   A   PUMP. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  NIAGARA    ENERGY. 


355 


law,  and  applies  strictly  where  the  total 
line  cost  increases  directly  as  the  in- 
crease in  area  and  weight  of  conductors. 
This  is  not  usually  the  case  in  practice, 
since  the  pole  line  is  built  with  a  capacity 
for  additional  wires,  and  the  cost  of 
conductors  is  therefore  usually  so  pro- 


' '  step-up  ' '  the  generator  pressure, 
which  may  range  from  1000  to  5000 
volts,  to  the  transmission  pressure,  and 
then  to  ' '  step-down  ' '  the  latter  for  de- 
livery and  distribution.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  large  static  transformers, 
similar  to  those  for  the  Pittsburgh  Re- 


AN   BLECTRIC   ROTARY  COAL   DRILL. 


portioned  that  the  interest  on  any  ad- 
ditional expenditure  for  copper  will  not 
be  offset  by  the  money  value  of  the 
power  saved. 

It  is  not  practicable  at  the  present 
time  to  build  either  generators  or  mo- 
tors which  will  stand  safely  the  high 
pressures  of  transmission  here  contem- 
plated. It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to 


duction  and  Carborundum  plants,  al- 
ready described,  arranged  in  units  of 
from  1000  to  2000  horse-power  each, 
in  ' '  step-up  ' '  and  ' '  step-down ' '  sta- 
tions at  each  end  of  the  line.  The 
11  step-up  "  and  "  step-down  "  stations 
correspond  to  the  pumping  and  regu- 
lating stations  at  each  end  of  the  nat- 
ural gas  pipe-line. 


356 


GASSIER' S  MAGAZINE. 


A   MODERN   DIRECT   CURRENT,    SLOW  SPEED   ELECTRIC   MOTOR. 


The  use  of  transformers  makes  it 
necessary  to  use  the  alternating  current 
for  long-distance  work,  and  technical 
questions  of  current  phase  and  fre- 
quency are  involved  in  the  engineering 
problem.  A  discussion  of  such  ques- 
tions, however,  involves  a  high  tech- 
nical knowledge,  and  as  their  proper 
relations  and  proportions  are  now  well 
understood  by  technical  men,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  attempt  to  discuss  them 
in  a  paper  of  this  kind. 

It  is  probable  that  duplicate  pole  lines 
and  conductors  will  be  installed  for  any 
long  distance  Niagara  transmission,  and 
for  distances  greater  than  50  miles,  one 
or  more  "  cut-out  "  stations  along  the 
line  will  be  advisable.  The  conductors 
will  be  led  into  these  stations,  and  con- 
nections will  be  so  arranged  that  any 
circuit,  or  any  wire  of  a  circuit,  can  be 
cut  out  for  repairs  or  tests,  and  the  cur- 
rent switched  to  another  circuit.  The 
stations  will  also  serve  as  headquarters 
for  telegraph  operators,  division  fore- 
men, repair  gangs  and  line-walkers. 


The  work  of  a  power  transmission 
company  ends  properly  with  the  de- 
livery of  the  power,  at  low  pressure,  in 
the  "  step-down"  station.  Its  local 
distribution  and  sale  are  similar  to  those 
of  power  generated  locally,  and  should 
be  handled  by  a  local  company  familiar 
with  the  people  and  with  local  affairs 
generally.  Such  companies  have  al- 
ready been  organized  in  Buffalo  and 
Syracuse,  and  will,  doubtless,  be  formed 
in  other  cities  to  which  the  Niagara 
power  may  eventually  be  delivered. 
The  local  engineering  problems  involved 
are  such  as  have  already  been  met  and 
solved  in  central  station  practice,  and 
need  not,  therefore,  be  discussed  now. 

The  illustration  on  page  358  shows, 
diagram matically,  the  connections  of 
a  long-distance  transmission  such  as  that 
to  be  installed  from  Niagara  to  points 
sixty  miles  or  more  distant.  Its  distin- 
guishing engineering  features,  and  those 
which  will,  mark  a  departure  from  any- 
thing heretofore  attempted,  are  :  The 
size  of  the  units  (generators,  motors 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  NIAGARA   ENERGY. 


357 


and  transformers);  the  solidity  and 
strength  of  line  construction,  and  the 
electromotive  force,  or  electrical  press- 
ure used  on  the  line.  The  last  fea- 
ture is  the  only  one  that  presents  any 
unknown  quantities,  and  it  is  really  the 
one  which  will  determine  the  engin- 
eering limit  of  the  distance  over  which 
it  will  be  possible  to  transmit  a  given 
amount  of  power  from  Niagara. 

From  experiments  and  tests  already 
made  on  the  Lauffen-Frankfort  line, 
and  elsewhere,  it  does  not  seem  hazard- 
ous to  predict  that  a  maximum  pressure 
of  50,000  volts  at  the  delivery  end  of 
the  line  will  be  successfully  adopted  for 
long  distances,  if  business  conditions 
warrant  the  transmission.  It  is  inter- 
esting to  observe  that  in  the  transmission 
of  either  oil,  gas  or  electricity,  the 
limiting  engineering  condition  is,  in 
each  case,  the  line  pressure  that  can  be 
safely  carried. 

One  other  engineering  feature  should 
be  mentioned,  and  that  is  the  efficiency 
of  the  apparatus  and  transmission  line. 
The  transformation  of  energy  by  elec- 
trical apparatus  is  accomplished  with  a 
very  small  loss,  and  the  efficiency  in- 


creases with  the  size  of  unit  employed. 
For  generators,  transformers  and  motors 
of  1000  horse-power  size,  or  larger, 
commercial  efficiencies,  that  is  the  ratio 
of  power  delivered  to  power  received, 
of  from  97  to  98  per  cent,  at  full  load 
can  be  maintained  ;  and  as  the  load 
varies  in  a  large  plant,  it  will  always  be 
possible  to  keep  the  units  that  are  in 
actual  operation  on  full  load  duty,  so  as 
to  realize  the  highest  efficiency.  The 
line  efficiency 

/atio  Power  delivered  to  step-down  transformers  \ 
V  Power  received  from  step-up  transformers./ 

will  vary  with  the  distance  and  the 
pressure  on  the  line.  For  the  most 
economical  conductor  cost,  the  line 
efficiency  will  vary,  probably,  in  prac- 
tice, from  92  per  cent,  for  a  Buffalo 
delivery  of,  say,  10,000  horse-power, 
at  10,000  volts  (distance  15  miles),  to 
something  less  than  60  per  cent,  for  an 
Albany  delivery  of  the  same  amount;  of 
power,  at  50,000  volts  (distance  about 
310  miles). 

The  third,  and  last  question  for  con- 
sideration is  the  cost  of  Niagara  power, 
delivered  at  various  distances,  as  com- 
pared with  the  cost  of  power  produced 


A  TYPICAL  ELECTRIC  STREET  CAR  MOTOR.      25  HORSE-POWER. 


358 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  NIAGARA   ENERGY. 


359 


locally  ;  and  as  steam  power  is  now 
generally  used,  either  for  application  to 
mechanical  work  direct,  or  else  for 
driving  electric  generators,  the  question 
is,,  really,  the  cost  of  Niagara  electric 
power,  delivered  in  bulk,  versus  cost  of 
local  steam  power.  It  goes  without 
saying  that  if  a  city,  as,  for  example, 
Rochester,  is  fortunate  enough  to 
possess  a  reliable  water  power  close  at 


for  365  days  a  year,  or  $5 1  per  horse- 
power for  24-hour  power,  for  365  days. 
This  cost  includes  interest  on  cost  of 
plant,  insurance,  taxes,  operating  ex- 
penses and  depreciation  and  repairs. 
As  the  coal  cost  is  low  as  compared 
with  other  cities,  and  as  the  load  of  the 
particular  plant  tested  is  unusually 
steady  and  uniform,  it  is  probable  that 
this  cost  of  steam  power  is  as  low  as 


A  TYPICAL  ALTERNATING   CURRENT    INDUCTION   MOTOR  OF   125   HORSE-POWER. 


hand,  and  of  sufficient  size  to  provide 
for  most  of  the  city's  requirements, 
Niagara  power  cannot  hope  to  compete 
with  it. 

From  recent  careful  tests,  made  by 
disinterested  experts,  it  appears  that 
the  cost  per  horse-power  per  annum  in 
large  and  economical  steam  plants  (1000 
horse-power  or  more)  in  Buffalo,  coal 
costing  $1.50  per  long  ton,  is  about 
$33  for  power  used  1 1  hours  per  day, 


will  be  found  within  the  area  of  influence 
of  Niagara  electric  power.  It  remains, 
therefore,  to  determine  the  approximate 
cost  of  this  power,  delivered  at  certain 
typical  points  within  this  area. 

About  a  year  ago,  there  appeared  in 
one  of  the  technical  journals,  a  very 
interesting  and  able  paper  by  Messrs. 
Houston  &  Kennelly,  two  well-known 
American  electrical  engineers,  entitled 
' '  An  Estimate  of  the  distance  to  which 


360 


CASSS£R'S  MAGAZINE. 


§§ 


O    o 

§    <J 
H    H 


w  w 


DISTRIBUTION   OF  NIAGARA   ENERGY. 


361 


AN   ELECTRIC   MINE   LOCOMOTIVE. 


Niagara  water  power  can  be  economic- 
ally transmitted  by  electricity."  As- 
suming certain  initial  data,  the  paper 
estimated,  in  detail,  the  cost  of  delivery 
of  certain  maximum  amounts  of  power 
to  three  points,  —  Buffalo,  Syracuse, 
and  Albany, — at  assumed  distances  by 
wire,  from  Niagara  Falls,  of  15,  164, 
and  330  miles,  respectively.  These 
costs  were  then  compared  with  the  cost 
of  steam  power,  generated  locally  in 
large  quantity,  under  most  economical 
conditions,  and  certain  conclusions  were 
drawn  from  the  comparsion.  The 
paper,  as  was  to  be  expected  and  de- 
sired, created  considerable  comment 
and  discussion  among  electrical  engin- 
eers and  in  the  technical  press,  and 
much  of  the  data  assumed  and  some  of 
the  conclusions  drawn,  were  publicly 
criticised  or  questioned.  The  critics, 
however,  apparently  without  exception, 
failed  to  appreciate  the  great  difference 


in  cost  per  horse-power  and  average 
efficiency  between  electric  generators, 
motors  and  transformers  of  the  size 
usually  employed  in  central  station 
practice,  and  those  of  1000  horse-power 
capacity  or  more  which  will  necessarily 
be  used  in  the  Niagara  work. 

They  also  failed  to  recognize  the 
fact  that,  inasmuch  as  Niagara  power 
will  be  transmitted  and  sold  in  bulk  in 
very  lar  2  quantities,  it  is  reasonable  to 
assume  iat  the  ' '  load  factor ' ' 


'.    Average  load     \ 


ratio 


Maximum  load/ 


will  be  considerably  higher  than  is 
usual  in  central  station  electric  lighting 
practice.  The  cost  of  local  steam 
power  assumed  in  the  paper  was  also 
criticised  as  being  too  low,  but  as  the 
figures  were  taken  from  tables  carefully 
prepared  and  published  by  a  well-known 
engineer,  and  as  they  agreed  closely 
with  those  obtained  from  the  test 


362 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


already  referred  to,  they  were  probably 
accurate.  While  some  of  the  data  and 
assumptions  used  by  Houston  &  Ken- 
nelly  were,  doubtless,  subject  to  cor- 
rection in  detail,  they  were,  in  the 
opinion  of  the  writer,  approximately 
correct,  if  taken  as  a  whole. 

The  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from  their 
figures  is  ' '  that  on  the  basis  of  prices 
and  voltages  assumed  and  detailed,  the 
power  of  Niagara  Falls  can  be  trans- 
mitted to  a  radius  of  200  miles,  cheaper 
than  it  can  be  produced  at  any  point 
within  that  range  by  steam  engines  of 
the  most  economical  type,  with  coal 
at  I2s.,  or  about  $3,  per  ton  ;  that 
Niagara  power  can  maintain  at  Albany, 
in  New  York  State,  a  large  day  and 
night  output  cheaper  than  steam  en- 
gines at  Albany  can  develop  it  ;  but 
that  for  power  taken  at  Albany  for  10 
hours  per  diem,  the  best  steam  engines 
have  somewhat  the  advantage  over 
Niagara,  unless  exceptionally  favorable 
conditions  of  load  could  be  secured  for 
Niagara  power. ' ' 

Speaking  of  electric  transmission 
from  water  powers  in  general,  Hous- 
ton &  Kennelly  say  :  ' '  The  broad 
conclusion  to  which  an  inquiry  of  this 
nature  inevitably  leads,  is  that  while 
under  ordinary  condkions  the  com- 
mercial limit  of  electrical  transmission 
of  power  from  water  powers  of  less 
than  500  kilowatts  can  hardly  exceed 
fifty  miles,  the  radius  at  which  it  will 
be  profitable,  with  good  fortune  and 
management,  to  electrically  transmit  a 


water  power  aggregating  50,000  kilo- 
watts, or  more,  is,  perhaps,  to-day, 
two  hundred  miles,  and  that  it  might 
be  commercially  advantageous  for  such 
a  large  water  power  to  undersell  large 
steam  powers  at  twice  this  distance  with 
no  profit,  in  order  to  reduce  the  general 
expense  upon  deli  very  nearer  home.  The 
reason  for  this  difference  in  the  trans- 
mission radius  between  small  and  large 
water  powers,  lies  obviously  in  the  fact 
that  electrical  and  hydraulic  machines 
can  be  built  and  purchased  much  more 
economically  in  large  sizes  than  in  small, 
so  that  the  cost  of  producing  and  of 
maintaining  one  kilowatt  is  very  much 
less  for  large  than  for  small  water 
powers." 

While  time  alone  can  prove  the  truth 
of  these  conclusions,  the  writer  is  of  the 
opinion  that,  with  the  present  cost  and 
efficiency  of  steam  generators,  they  are 
substantially  correct.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  a  method  be  discovered  for  trans- 
forming the  heat  energy  of  coal  into 
electricity  direct,  at  an  efficiency  com- 
parable with  that  of  modern  electrical 
apparatus,  the  area  of  influence  of 
Niagara  electric  power  will,  undoubt- 
edly, be  contracted.  While  such  a 
discovery  would  undoubtedly  be  a 
great  one,  it  should  be  stated  that  there 
is  no  prospect,  at  present,  of  its  ac- 
complishment. In  any  event,  it  is 
probable  that  the  Niagara  power 
company  will  find  enough  profitable 
business  to  insure  a  satisfactory  return 
on  the  money  which  they  have  invested. 


QFTHE 

IVERSITY 


PETER  A.  PORTER  is  prominently  identi- 
fied with  the  interests  of  the  city  of  Niagara 
Falls.  As  a  member  of  the  New  York  State 
Legislature  in  1886,  he  introduced  the  Niagara 
Tunnel  Bill,  under  which  the  Niagara  power 
is  now  being  developed. 


THE   NIAGARA   REGION   IN   HISTORY. 


By  Peter  A.  Porter. 


and 


THE  OLD  STONE  CHIMNEY   AT 
NIAGARA,  BUILT  IN   1750. 


IN  1764  Sir  William  John- 
son, commander  of  the 
English  forces  in  the 
Niagara  region,  supplement- 
ing the  treaty  of  the  preced- 
ing year  between  England 
France,  assembled  all 
the  Indian  warriors  of 
that  region,  some  2000 
in  number,  comprising 
chiefly  the  hostile  Sen- 
ecas,  at  Fort  Niagara, 
and  a  c  q  u  ir  e  d  from 
them,  for  the  English 
Crown,  together  with 
other  territory,  a  strip 
of  land;  four  miles 
wide,  on  each  bank  of  the  Niagara  river 
(the  islands  being  excepted)  from  Lake 
Erie  to  Lake  Ontario.  The  Senecas  also 
ceded  to  him,  personally,  at  this  time, 
' '  as  proof  of  their  regard  and  of  their 
knowledge  of  the  trouble  which  he  had 
had  with  them  from  time  to  time,"  all 
the  islands  in  the  Niagara  river,  and  he, 
in  turn,  as  compelled  by  the  military 
law  of  that  period,  ceded  them  to  his 
Sovereign. 

It  is  oi  the  territory  included  in 
the  above  two  grants,  a  region  now 
popularly  known  as  ' '  the  Niagara 
frontier,"  that  the  .writer  proposes  to 
treat.  And  a  famed  and  famous  terri- 
tory it  is,  for  it  would  be  difficult  to  find 
anywhere  else  an  equal  area  of  country 
(36  miles  long  and  8  miles  broad,  be- 
sides the  islands)  around  which  cluster 
so  many,  so  important  and  such  varied 
associations  as  one  finds  there. 

Through  its  centre  flows  the  grand 
Niagara  river,  between  whose  banks  the 
waters  of  four  great  lakes, — the  water- 
shed of  almost  half  a  continent, — find 
their  way  to  the  ocean  ;  and  through 
the  centre  of  the  deepest  channel  of  this 
river  runs  the  boundary  line  between 


the  two  great  nations  of  North  Amer- 
ica. In  it  are  located  the  Falls  of  Ni- 
agara, the  ideal  waterfall  of  the  universe; 
in  it  are  found  the  two  government 
parks  or  reservations,  established,  re- 
spectively, by  the  State  of  New  York 
and  the  province  of  Ontario,  in  order 
that  the  immediate  surroundings  of  Ni- 
agara might  be  preserved,  as  nearly  as 
possible,  in  their  natural  state  and  be 
forever  free  to  all  mankind.  In  it  one 
meets  with  many  arid  wondrous  aspects 
of  natural  scenery  ;  in  it  one  finds  geo- 
logic records,  laid  bare  along  the  river' s 
chasm  by  the  force  of  the  water  thou- 
sands of  years  ago,  and  which  hold  so 
high  a  place  in.  that  science,  that  among 
its  classifications  the)  name  Niagara  is 
applied  to  one  of  the  groups.  In  it  are 
found  botanic  specimens  of  beauty  and 
rarity,  and  it  is  stated  that  on  Goat 
Island,  embracing  80  acres,  are  to  be 
found  a  greater  number  of  species  and 
flora  than  can  be  found  in  an  equal  area 
anywhere  else.  In  it  are  to  be  found, 
also,  the  development  of, hydraulic  en- 
terprises which  are  regarded  as  stupen- 
dous even  in  this  age  of  marvels  ;  while 
as  to  places  noted  for  historic  interest, 
one  may  truly  say  that  it  is  all  historic 
ground. 

Within  sight  of  the  spray  of  the  Falls 
the  red  men,  in  ages  long  gone  by, 
lived,  held  their  councils,  waged  their 
inhuman  warfares  and  offered  up  their 
human  sacrifices.  To.  this  Niagara  re- 
gion long  ago  came  the  adventurous 
French  traders,  the  forerunners  of  the 
"  coureurs  de  bois,"  believed  to  have 
been  the  first  white  men  who  ever  gazed 
upon  the  Falls,  though  the  name  of  the 
man  to  whom  that  honour  belongs,  and 
the  exact  date  at  which  he  saw  them 
will  probably  forever  remain  unknown. 

Across  Niagara's  rapid  stream  went 
several  of  the  early  missionaries  of  the 

.365 


366 


GASSIER 'S  MAGAZINE. 


THE   FIRST   KNOWN   PICTURE   OF   NIAGARA  FALLS. 

(From  Father  Hennepin's  "  Nouvelle  Decouverte,"  1697.) 


Catholic  church  as  they  carried  the  gos- 
pel to  the  various  Indian  tribes  in  the 
unknown  wilderness.  To  this  region 
came  the  French,  first  officially  in  the 
person  of  La  Salle  ;  afterwards,  by  the 
armies,  seeking  conquest  and  the  con- 
trol of  the  fur  trade.  At  the  mouth  of 
the  Niagara  river  the  French  established 
one  of  their  most  important  posts. 
There  they  traded  with,  conferred  with 
and  intrigued  with  the  Indians,  making 
firm  friends  of  some  of  the  tribes  and 
bitter  enemies  of  others  ;  arid  during 
the  fourscore  years  that  France  held 
sway  on  the  American  continent,  this 
region  was  a  famous  part  of  her  domain 
in  the  new  world. 

Later  on,  steadily  but  surely  driving 
the  French  before  them,  and  finally 
totally  depriving  them  of  their  posses- 
sions, came  the  English.  Shortly  after 
England  became  the  undisputed  owner 
of  the  region,  the  American  Revolution 
began,  and  within  twenty  years  after 
England  had  dispossessed  France  of 
this  famous  territory,  she  herself  was 
compelled  to  recognize  a  new  nation, 


formed  by  her  own  descendants,  and  to 
cede  to  it  one-half,  or,  counting  the 
islands,  more  than  one-half  of  the  lands 
bordering  on  the  Niagara  river.  From 
that  time  on,  the  United  States  and 
Great  Britain  have  held  undisputed 
possession  of  all  this  wondrous  section. 

Looking  back  in  history  for  the  first 
references  to  the  Niagara  region,  we 
find  them  derived  from  Indian  tradition 
or  hearsay,  and  that,  almost  entirely 
by  reason  of  the  Falls  and  Rapids. 
However,  it  was  not  their  grandeur, 
but  the  fact  that  the  Indians  were  com- 
pelled to  carry  their  canoes  so  many 
miles  around  them  that  impressed  them. 
Thus,  the  existence  of  a  great  fall  at  this 
point  was  known  to  the  Indians  all  over 
the  North  American  continent,  we  know 
not  how  far  back  ;  certainly  as  early  as 
the  arrival  of  Columbus  at  San  Salva- 
dor. 

In  X535  Jacques  Cartier  made  his 
second  voyage  to  the  St.  Lawrence, 
and  the  Indians  living  along  that  river 
narrated  to  him  what  they  had  heard 
of  the  upper  part  of  that  stream,  and  of 


NIAGARA  IN  HISTORY. 


367 


the  lakes  beyond,  mentioning,  in  con- 
nection therewith,  a  cataract  and  a  por- 
tage. Lescarbot,  in  his  "  History  of 
New  France,"  published  in  1609,  tells 
of  this  in  his  story  of  Carder's  voyage. 
This  is  the  earliest  reference  (1535)  to 
the  Great  Lake  region  and  Niagara's 
cataract. 

Champlain,  in  his  "  Des  Sauvages," 
published  in  1603,  speaks  of  a  "fall," 
which,  clearly,  is  Niagara, 
and  on  the  map,  in  his 
' '  Voyages, ' '  published  in 
1613,  he  locates  a  river 
with  such  approximate  ex- 
actness as  to  be  the  Niagara 
beyond  doubt,  and  in  that 
river  he  indicates  a  ' '  sault 
d'eau,"  or  water- fall. 

In  1615  Etienne  Brule, 
who  was  Champlain' s  inter- 
preter, was  in  that  vicinity, 
in  the  territory  of  the  Neu- 
ter nation,  and  may  have 
been  the  first  pale-face  to 
have  seen  the  Falls.  In 
1626  the  Franciscan  priest 
Joseph  de  la  Roche  Dallion 
was  on  the  Niagara  river  in 
the  course  of  his  missionary 
labors  among  the  Neutrals. 
It  is  more  than  probable 
that  at  this  date  the  Ni- 
agara route  westward,  as 
distinguished  from  the  Ot- 
tawa route,  was  known  and 
had  been  traversed  by  white 
men — the  French  traders  or 
'  'coureurs  de  bois ' '  previ- 
ously mentioned.  In  the 
1632  edition  of  his  "Voy- 
ages," Champlain  again, 
though  inaccurately,  lo- 
cates on  his  map  a  river 
which  cannot  be  any  other 
than  the  Niagara,  and  quite  accurately 
locates  also  a  ' '  waterfall,  very  high, 
at  the  end  of  Lake  St.  Louis  (Ontario), 
where  many  kinds  of  fish  are  stunned 
in  the  descent." 

In  1640  the  Jesuit,  fathers  Brebeuf 
and  Chaumonot  undertook  their  mis- 
sion to  the  Neuter  nation,  the  existence 
of  the  famous  river  of  this  nation  having 
been  familiar  to  the  Jesuits  before  this 


date.  They  crossed  from  the  westerly 
to  the  easterly  shore  of  the  Niagara 
river,  recrossing  again,  near  where  the 
village  of  Lewiston  now  stands,  when 
their  mission  proved  unsuccessful.  In 
the  Jesuit  Relations  we  find  references  to 
this  region.  In  that  of  1641,  published 
in  1642,  Father  L' Allement  speaks  of 
"  the  Neuter  nation,  Onguiaahra,  hav- 
ing the  same  name  as  the  river,"  and 


FATHER    HENNEPIN. 

(From  an  Edition  of  1702.) 


in  that  of  1648,  published  in  1649, 
Father  Ragueneau  speaks  of  ' '  Lake 
Erie  which  is  formed  by  the  waters 
from  the  Mer  Douce  (Lake  Huron), 
and  which  discharges  itself  into  a  third 
lake,  called  Ontario,  over  a  cataract  of 
fearful  height." 

Sanson  in  his  map  of  Canada,  1657, 
correctly  locates  the  lakes  and  this  re- 
gion, and  calls  the  Falls  ' '  Ongiara 


368 


CASSIER'S    MAGAZINE. 


Sault."  In  Davity,  1660,  Le  Sieur 
Gendron  refers  to  the  Falls  in  the 
exact  words  of  Father  Ragueneau 
above.  In  his  <(  Historiae  Canaden- 
sis,"  De  Creuxius  very  nearly  cor- 
rectly locates  this  region  and  the 
Niagara  river,  and  calls  the  Falls  "  On- 
giara  Cataractes."  In  1669  La  Salle 
made  a  visit  to  the  Senecas  who  dwelt 
in  what  is  now  known  as  Western  New 


RENE  ROBERT  CAVELIER,  SIEUR  DE  LA  SALLE. 

(From  an  Edition  of  1688.) 

York.  With  him  went  Fathers  Dollier 
de  Casson  and  Rene  Gallinee,  traveling 
as  far  as  the  western  end  of  Lake  On- 
tario, whence  La  Salle  returned  east- 
ward. Gallinee' s  journal  of  that  jour- 
ney includes  the  earliest  known  descrip- 
tion of*  Niagara  Falls,  which  is  as  fol- 
lows : 

"  We  found  a  river,  one-eighth  of  a 
league  broad,  and  extremely  rapid, 
forming  the  outlet  or  communication 


from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Ontario.  The 
outlet  is  40  leagues  long  and  has,  from 
10  to  12  leagues  above  its  embrochure 
into  Lake  Ontario,  one  of  the  finest  falls 
of  water  in  the  world,  for  all  the  In- 
dians of  whom  I  have  inquired  about  it 
say  that  the  river  falls  at  that  place  from 
a  rock  higher  than  the  tallest  pines, — 
that  is,  about  300  feet.  In  fact,  we 
heard  it  from  the  place  where  we  were, 
although  from  10  to  12 
leagues  distant ;  but  the  fall 
gives  such  a  momentum  to 
the  water  that  its  velocity 
prevented  our  ascending  the 
current  by  rowing,  except 
with  great  difficulty.  At  a 
quarter  of  a  league  from  the 
outlet  where  we  were  it 
grows  narrower  and  its  chan- 
nel is  confined  between  two 
very  high,  steep,  rocky 
banks,  inducing  the  belief 
that  the  navigation  would 
be  very  difficult  quite  up  to 
the  cataract. 

"As  to  the  river  above 
the  falls,  the  current  very 
often  sucks  into  this  gulf, 
from  a  great  distance,  deer 
and  stags,  elk  and  roebucks, 
that  suffer  themselves  to  be 
drawn  from  such  a  point  in 
crossing  the  river  that  they 
are  compelled  to  descend  the 
falls  and  are  overwhelmed  in 
the  frightful  abyss.  I  will 
leave  you  to  judge  if  that  is 
not  a  fine  cataract  in  which 
all  the  water  of  that  large 
river  falls  from  a  height  of 
200  feet  with  a  noise  that 
is  heard  not  only  at  the 
place  where  we  were,  10  or 
12  leagues  distant,  but  also  from  the 
other  side  of  Lake  Ontario." 

Neither  Gallinee,  Champlain,  nor  any 
of  the  other  writers  quoted  heretofore, 
ever  saw  the  Falls.  In  1678  Father 
Hennepin  visited  the  Falls  and  in  1683 
published  his  first  work,  "Louisiana," 
in  which  he  tells  of  the  Niagara  river 
and  of  the  Falls  themselves,  calling  them 
500  feet  high.  On  Coronelli's  map  of 
1688  the  word  Niagara  first  appears  in 


NIAGARA   IN  HISTORY. 


MAGAZINE. 


cartography.  In  1691  Father  Le 
Clercq,  in  his  "  Establishment  of  the 
Faith  in  New  France, ' '  uses  the  words 
"Niagara  Falls."  In  1697  Father 
Hennepin  published  his  ' '  New  Dis- 
covery," in  which  he  gives  the  well 
known  description  of  Niagara  Falls, 
commencing  "betwixt  the  lakes  On- 
tario and  Erie  there  is  a  vast  and  pro- 
digious cadence  of  water  which  falls 
down  after  a  surprising  and  astonishing 
manner  insomuch  that  the  universe 
does  not  afford  its  parallel."  Later 
on,  in  the  same  work,  he  describes 
them  again,  giving  their  height  as  600 
feet.  He  also  gives  in  that  work  the 
first  known  picture  of  Niagara  Falls,  re- 
produced on  page  366  Hennepin' s  two 
works  as  above,  and  a  third,  entitled 
' '  Nouveau  Voyage, ' '  were  translated 
into  almost  all  the  languages  of  Europe 
and  by  means  of  this,  as  well  as  by  the 
work  of  Campanius  Holm,  published  in 
1702,  who  reproduces  Hennepin' s 
sketch  of  Niagara,  and  by  the  works  of 
La  Hontan,  published  in  1703,  and  of 
others  later  on,  this  region  and  Niagara 
Falls  became  familiar  to  all  Europeans. 
It  was  reserved  for  Charlevoix  and 
Borassow,  each  independently  of  the 
other,  in  1721,  to  accurately  measure 
the  height  of  the  Falls. 

Hennepin  was  the  first  to  use  the 
modern  spelling  "Niagara,"  and  he 
was  followed  by  De  Nonville,  Coro- 
nelli  and  by  all  French  writers  since 
that  time.  English  writers,  on  the 
other  hand,  did  not  uniformly  adopt 
this  spelling  until  the  middle  of  the  i8th 
century.  The  Neuter  nation  of  Indians 
occupied  all  the  territory  now  called 
' '  the  Niagara  Peninsula, ' '  by  far  the 
larger  number  of  their  villages  being  on 
the  western  side  of  the  river.  It  was 
the  Indian  custom  to  give  their  tribal 
name  to,  or  to  take  it  from,  the  chief  nat- 
ural feature  of,  the  country  which  they 
inhabited  ;  hence,  they  were  called 
1 '  Onguiaahra,  the  same  name  as  the 
river,"  as  noted  by  Father  Ragueneau. 
The  Neuter  nation  were  so  called,  be- 
cause, living  between  the  Hurons  on  the 
west  and  the  Iroquois  on  the  east, — 
two  tribes  which  were  sworn  enemies, — 
they  were  at  peace  with  both,  and  in 


their  cabins  the  warriors  of  these  two 
nations  met  without  strife  and  in  safety! 
The  Neuters,  however,  were  frequently 
at  war  with  other  tribes,  and  eventually 
even  their  neutrality  towards  the  Hu- 
rons and  the  Iroquois  disappeared  and 
about  1643  the  Senecas,  the  most  west- 
erly and  also  the  most  savage  tribe  of 
the  Iroquois  confederacy,  attacked  and 
annihilated  the  Neuters,  their  remnant 
being  merged  into  the  Iroquois. 

There  are  numerous  ways  of  spelling 
the  Indian  name  of  this  Neuter  nation, 
thirty- nine  of  them  being  given  in  the 
index  volume  of  the  Colonial  History 
of  the  State  of  New  York.  The  forms 
most  commonly  met  with  in  early  days 
were  Jagara,  Oneagerah,  Onygara, 
lagara,  Onigara,  Ochniagara,  Ognio- 
gorah,  and  those  previously  noted  in 
this  article.  The  word  Niagara,  ac- 
cording to  Marshall,  was  derived  by  the 
French  from  Ongiara.  The  Senecas, 
when  they  conquered  the  Neuters, 
adopted  that  name  as  applied  to  the 
river  and  region,  as  near  as  the  idiom 
of  their  language  would  allow  ;  hence, 
their  spelling,  Nyah-ga-ah.  The  word, 
thus  derived  through  the  Iroquois  and 
from  the  Neuter  language,  is  said  to 
mean  the  "thunder  of  the  waters," 
though  this  poetic  significance  has  been 
questioned  by  some  who  claim  that  it 
•  signifies  "neck,"  alluding  to  the  river 
being  the  connecting  link  between  the 
two  lakes.  The  Iroquois  language  had 
no  labial  sound  and  all  their  words  were 
spoken  without  closing  the  lips.  They 
seem  to  have  pronounced  it  ' '  Nyah-ga- 
rah,"  and  later  on  "  Nee-ah-ga-rah," 
while  in  more  modern  Indian  dialect, 
all  vowels  being  still  sounded,  "  Ni-ah- 
gah-rah  "  was  the  ordinary  pronuncia- 
tion. Our  modern  word  "Niagara" 
should  really  be  pronounced  Ni-a-ga-ra. 

Many  were  the  superstitions  and 
legends  which  the  Indians,  living  along 
the  Niagara  river  and  in  the  whole  re- 
gion, held  as  sacred.  To  the  Neuter 
nation,  naturally,  the  Falls  of  Niagara 
appeared  in  the  nature  of  a  divinity. 
From  them  they  had  taken  their  tribal 
name,  and  considered  them  the  em- 
bodiment of  religion  and  power.  To 
them  they  offered  sacrifices  of  many 


NIAGARA  IN  HISTORY. 


371 


kinds,  often  journeying  long  distances 
for  the  purpose.  In  the  thunder  of  the 
Falls  they  believed  they  heard  the 
voice  of  the  Great  Spirit.  In  the  spray 
they  believed  they  saw  his  habitation. 
To  him  they  regularly  and  religiously 
contributed  a  portion  of  their  crops  and 
of  the  results  of  the  chase,  and  exult- 
ingly  offered  human  sacrifices  and 
trophies  on  returning  from  such  war- 
like expeditions  as  they  were  compelled 
to  undertake.  To  him  each  warrior 
frequently  made  offerings  of  his  personal 
adornments  and  weapons,  and  as  an 
annual  offering  of  good  will  from  the 
tribe  and  a  propitiation  for  continued 
neutrality,  and  therefore  existence,  they 
sacrificed  each  spring  the  fairest  maiden 
of  their  tribe,  sending  her  over  the 
Falls  in  a  white  canoe,  which  was  filled 
with  fruits  and  flowers  and  guided  solely 
by  her  own  hand.  The  honour  of  be- 
ing selected  for  this  awful  death  was 
earnestly  coveted  by  the  maidens  of 
that  stoical  race,  and  the  clan  to  which 
the  one  selected  belonged,  held  such 
choice  to  be  a  special  honour  to  itself. 
Tradition  says  that  this  annual  sacri- 
fice was  abandoned,  because,  one  year, 
the  daughter  of  the  great  chief  of  the 
tribe  was  selected.  Her  father  betrayed 
no  emotion,  but  on  the  fateful  day,  as 
the  white  canoe,  guided  by  his  daugh- 
ter's hand,  entered  the  rapids,  another 
canoe,  propelled  by  a  paddle  in  her 
father's  hand,  shot  swiftly  from  the 
bank,  followed  the  same  channel  and 
reached  the  brink  and  disappeared  into 
the  abyss  but  a  moment  after  the  one 
which  bore  his  daughter.  The  tribe 
thought  the  loss  of  such  a  chief  in  such 
a  way  to  be  so  serious  a  blow  that  the 
sacrifice  was  abandoned  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  possibility  of  a  repetition.  A 
more  likely,  but  less  poetic,  reason  for  its 
abandonment  lies  in  the  belief  that  on 
the  extermination  of  the  Neuters,  their 
conquerors,  having  no  such  inherent 
adoration  for  the  Great  Spirit  of  Ni- 
agara, and  for  many  years  not  even 
occupying  the  lands  of  their  victims, 
failed  to  continue  the  custom.  The 
Neuter  warriors  also  wanted  to  be  bur- 
ied beside  their  river,  as  many  exhumed 
skeletons  at  various  points  along  its 


banks  prove  ;  and  the  nearer  to  the 
Falls,  the  greater  the  honour.  Goat 
Island  is  said  to  have  been  the  burying 
ground  reserved  for  great  chiefs  and 
brave  warriors,  and  the  body  of  many 
an  Indian  brave  lies  in  the  soil  of  that 
beautiful  spot. 

Prior  to  1678  France  laid  claim  to  a 
vast  area,  now  embraced  by  Canada 
and  the  northern  portion  of  the  United 
States,  east  of  the  Mississippi,  includ- 
ing the  Niagara  region,  by  reason  of 
early  explorations  and  discoveries  by 
her  seamen,  traders  and  missionaries. 
From  that  date,  when  La  Salle  began 
his  westward  journeys  of  exploration,  for 
eighty  years,  she  was  a  paramount  force 
in  that  region,  though  during  the  last  few 
years  of  that  period  her  prowess  and 
supremacy  were  waning  and  were  swept 
away  in  1659  by  the  capture  of  Quebec 
and  Fort  Niagara,  the  latter  being  the 
last  of  the  important  posts  that  she  held 
in  the  long  line  of  fortifications  which 
connected  the  great  tract,  known  as 
Louisiana,  with  her  eastern  Canadian 
possessions.  From  1759,  by  occupa- 
tion, and  from  1763,  by  treaty,  England 
owned  all  this  territory  until  1776,  when 
the  Colonists  demanded  recognition  as  a 
separate  nation.  This  England  con- 
ceded in  1783,  and  thus  relinquished  all 
ownership  of  that  portion  of  the  Ni- 
agara region  that  lies  east  of  the  river, 
although  it  was  not  until  after  the  ratifi- 
cation of  Jay's  treaty,  in  1796,  that 
England  relinquished  Fort  Niagara ; 
nor  until  the  treaty  of  Ghent,  in  1816, 
was  it  absolutely  conceded  that  most  of 
the  islands  in  the  Niagara  river  be- 
longed to  the  United  States. 

On  December  6,  1678,  La  Salle 
anchored  his  brigantine  of  ten  tons  in 
the  Niagara  river,  just  above  its  mouth. 
He  saw  the  value,  from  a  military  stand- 
point, of  the  point  of  land  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  and  straightway  built  there 
a  trading  post.  Proceeding  up  the 
river  to  where  Lewiston  now  stands, 
he  built  there  a  fort  of  palisades,  and 
carrying  the  anchors,  cordage,  etc., 
which  he  had  brought  with  him  for  that 
purpose,  up  the  mountain  side  and 
through  the  forest  to  the  mouth  of  Cay- 
uga  creek,  five  miles  above  the  Falls  on 


372 


GASSIER' S  MAGAZINE. 


THE   WHITE   MAX'S   FANCY. 


NIAGARA   IN  HISTORY. 


373 


THE   RED  MAN  S   FACT. 


374 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


THE  BUILDING  OF  THE  GRIFFON,    1679. 

(Fac-simile  reproduction  of  the  original  copper-plate  engraving,  first  published  in 
Father  Hennepin's  "Nouvelle  Decouverte,"  Amsterdam,  1704.) 


the  American  side,  where  to-day  is  a 
hamlet  bearing  his  name,  he  there  built 
and  launched  the  Griffon,  the  first  ves- 
sel, other  than  Indian  canoes,  that 
ever  sailed  the  upper  lakes,  and  the 
pioneer  of  an  inland  commerce  of  un- 
told value. 

In  1687,  the -Marquis  de  Nonville, 
returning  from  his  expedition  against 
the  Senecas,  fortified  La  Salle's  trading 
post  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  but  it 
was  abandoned  during  the  following 
year.  It  was,  however,  rebuilt  in  stone 
in  1725  by  consent  of  the  Iroquois,  and 
thereafter  maintained.  The  site  of  the 
present  village  of  Lewiston,  named  in 
honour  of  Governor"  Lewis  of  New 
York, — the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
lower  Niagara, — was  the  commence- 
ment of  a  portage  of  which  the  upper 
terminus  was  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
above  the  Falls,  the  road  traversed 
being,  even  now,  called  the  ' '  portage 
road."  The  upper  end  of  this  portage, 
at  first  merely  an  open  landing  place 
for  boats,  necessarily  grew  into  a  fortifi- 
cation, which  was  completed  in  1750 
and  was  called  Fort  de  Portage,  or,  by 
some,  Fort  Little  Niagara.  A  short 
distance  below  the  site  of  this  fort  the 
French  built  their  barracks.  These  and 


the  fort  itself  were  burnt  in  1759  by 
Joncaire,  who  was  in  command,  to  pre- 
vent their  falling  into  the  hands  of  the 
victorious  English,  and  he  and  his  men 
retreated  to  a  station  on  Chippewa 
creek,  across  the  river.  An  old  stone 
chimney,  believed  to  be  the  first  stone 
structure  built  in  that  part  of  the  coun- 
try, and  around  which  were  built  the 
French  barracks,  stands  to-day  solitary 
and  alone,  the  only  reminder  of  the 
early  commercial  and  military  activities 
at  this  point. 

It  was  in  1759  that  the  English  com- 
menced that  short,  memorable  and  de- 
cisive campaign  which  was  forever  to 
crush  out  French  rule  in  North  America. 
General  Prideaux  was  in  charge  of  the 
English  forces  thereabouts,  and,  carry- 
ing out  that  part  of  the  plan  assigned 
to  him,  collected  his  forces  east  of  Fort 
Niagara  on  the  shore  of  Lake  Ontario. 
That  fort  had  been  strongly  fortified, 
and  this  fact,  coupled  with  its  location, 
made  its  capture  necessary  for  English 
success.  Prideaux' s  demand  for  its 
surrender  having  been  refused,  he  laid 
siege  to  it.  He  was  killed  during  the 
continuance  of  the  siege,  and  the  com- 
mand devolved  on  Sir  William  John- 
son, who  pushed  operations  vigorously 


NIAGARA   IN  HISTORY. 


and  captured  the  fort  before  French  re- 
inforcements could  arrive. 

These  reinforcements  had  been  sent 
from  Venango,  on  Lake  Erie,  and, 
coming  down  the  Niagara  river,  had 
reached  Navy  Island  (Isle  de  Marine), 
then  held  by  the  French,  when  they 
heard  of  the  fall  of  Fort  Niagara.  The 
certainty  that  the  two  vessels  which  had 
brought  the  troops  and  ammunition 
from  Venango  would  be  captured  by 
the  English,  induced  the  French  to  take 
them,  together  with  some  small  vessels 


nected  with  the  great  French  and  Eng- 
lish struggle.  Champlain's  early  hos- 
tility to  the  Iroquois,  when  he  sided 
with  the  Senecas  against  them,  had 
made  the  Iroquois  the  firm  friends  of 
the  English  during  all  the  subsequent 
years,  and  it  had  also  endeared  the 
French  to  the  Senecas,  even  though 
the  latter  had  subsequently  joined  the 
Iroquois  confederacy. 

After  the  total  defeat  of  the  French 
and  their  practical  surrender  of  all  their 
territory  in  1759,  the  old  hatred  of  the 


THE   CAPTURE   OF   FORT   GEORGE,    1813. 

(From  an  Old  Engraving.) 


which  had  recently  been  built  on  Navy 
Island,  over  to  the  northern  shore  of 
Grand  Island,  lying  close  by,  into  a 
quiet  bay,  where  they  set  them  on  fire 
and  totally  destroyed  them.  As  late 
as  the  middle  of  the  present  century, 
portions  of  these  vessels  were  clearly 
visible  under  water  in  the  arm  of  the 
river,  which,  from  this  incident,  has 
become  known  as  "  Burnt  Ship  Bay.'* 
One  more  historical  point,  the  scene 
of  the  Devil's  Hole  massacre,  is  con- 


English  on  the  part  of  the  Senecas, 
abetted,  no  doubt,  by  French  influences, 
led  them  to  commence  a  bloody  cam- 
paign against  the  English  in  1763. 
They  knew  the  English  were,  on  a 
certain  day,  to  send  a  long  train  of 
wagons,  filled  with  supplies  and  ammu- 
nition, from  Fort  Niagara  to  Fort 
Schlosser,  a  station,  built  in  1761  by 
Capt.  Joseph  Schlosser  of  the  English 
army,  to  replace  Fort  de  Portagfe,  which 
had  been  destroyed  two  years  pre- 


376 


GASSIER' S  MAGAZINE. 


viously.  They  knew  also  that  the 
military  force  accompanying  the  train 
was  to  be  a  small  one.  At  a  point, 
known  as  the  Devil's  Hole,  about  three 
miles  below  the  Falls,  and  at  the  edge 
of  the  precipice,  they  ambushed  this 
fated  supply  train  and  destroyed  it, 
forcing  both  train  and  escort  over  the 
high  bank,  and  killing  all  but  three  of 
the  escort  and  drivers.  They  then  cun- 
ningly ambushed  the  relief  force,  which 
at  the  sound  of  the  firing  had  set  out 
from  Lewiston  where  the  English  main- 
tained a  slight  encampment,  and  killed 
all  but  eight  of  these.  It  was  a  striking 
example  of  Indian  warfare  and  of  Indian 
shrewdness.  Shortly  after  this,  in  1763, 
the  treaty  between  France  and  England 
was  signed,  whereby  England  became 
the  absolute  owner  and  master  of  the 
northeastern  portion  of  the  North 
American  continent. 

No  serious  conflict  marked  England's 
rule  in  her  new  territory,  acquired  by 
so  long  and  fierce  a  struggle  and  at 
so  great  a-  cost  of  lives  and  money.  But 
thirteen  years  after  the  above  treaty  was 
signed,  the  American  Revolution  com- 
menced'. Had  Gen.  Sullivan's  expedi- 
tion against  the  Senecas  in  1779,  been 
successful,  as  planned,  he  would  have 
pursued  the  dusky  warriors  who  fled  to 
Fort  Niagara,  and  would  have  attacked 
and  probably  captured  that  fort,  then 
in  possession  of  the  English  ;  but  mis- 
fortune befel  him  on  his  westward 
march,  and  the  Niagara  region  was 
never  the  scene  of  actual  hostilities  dur- 
ing that  war.  When  it  closed,  England 
had  lost  and  relinquished  to  the  United 
States  all  that  portion  of  this  region  that 
lies  east  of  the  Niagara  river. 

The  Niagara  region,  especially  that 
part  lying  along  the  banks  of  the  river, 
felt  the  full  burden  of  the  three  years  of 
border  warfare  between  American  and 
English  forces,  each  with  their  Indian 
allies,  known  in  history  as  the  war  of 
1812.  In  the  fall  of  1812,  about  four 
months  after  the  declaration  of  war, 
Gen.  Van  Rensselaer  established  his 
camp  just  east  of  the  village  of  Lewiston, 
and  collected  an  army  for  the  invasion 
of  Canada.  After  some  delay  and  one 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  cross  the  river, 


many  of  his  men  reached  the  Canadian 
shore  and  promptly  and  easily  occupied 
an  advantageous  position  on  Queenston 
Heights.  Gen.  Brock  hastened  from 
Fort  George,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river, 
with  English  reinforcements,  and,  in 
endeavoring  to  recapture  this  point  of 
vantage,  was  killed  at  the  head  of  his 
troops.  Other  English  reinforcements 
having  arrived,  the  Americans  were 
defeated  and  dislodged  from  their  posi- 
tion, many  being  forced  over  the  edge 
of  the  bluff.  Most  of  these  and  many 
on  the  brow  of  the  mountain  were  taken 
prisoners.  Meanwhile,  directly  across 
the  river,  on  the  American  side,  in  full 
view  of  the  battle,  were  several  hundred 
American  volunteers  who  basely  refused 
to  go  to  the  aid  of  their  companions. 

The  results  of  this  first  battle  were 
most  depressing  to  the  American  cause. 
At  the  foot  of  Queenston  Heights  an 
inscribed  stone,  set  in  place  in  1860  by 
the  Prince  of  Wales  with  appropriate 
ceremonies,  marks  the  spot  where  Gen. 
Brock  fell,  and  on  the  heights  above  a 
lofty  column  was  erected  to  his  memory 
in  1826,  as  a  monument  of  his  country's 
gratitude.  This  was  blown  up  by  a 
miscreant  in  1840,  but  was  replaced  in 
l853  by  the  present  more  beautiful 
shaft,  within  whose  foundations  Gen. 
Brock's  remains  lie  buried. 

It  was  in  November,  1812,  that  Gen. 
Alexander  Smythe,  of  Virginia,  com- 
manding the  American  army  on  this 
frontier,  issued  his  famous  bombastic 
circular,  inviting  everybody  to  assemble 
at  Black  Rock,  near  the  source  of  the 
Niagara  river  and  to  invade  Canada. 
1 '  Come  in  companies,  half  companies, 
pairs  or  singly ;  come  anyhow,  but 
come,"  was  its  substance,  and  about 
4000  men  responded.  But  Smythe 
proved  incapable,  and  having  made 
himself  a  laughing-stock  in  many  ways, 
among  others  in  challenging  Gen. 
Porter,  who  had  questioned  his  courage, 
to  a  duel  (which  challenge  was  ac- 
cepted and  shots  were  exchanged  on 
Grand  Island),  the  contemplated  in- 
vasion was  abandoned. 

In  May,  1813,  the  Americans  cap- 
tured Fort  George  and  the  village  of 
Newark,  both  on  the  Canadian  shore 


NIAGARA    IN  HISTORY. 


377 


near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  held 
them  until  December  of  that  year.  So 
effectual  was  American  supremacy  at 
.this  time,  that  the  English  Fort  Erie,  at 
the  source  of  the  river,  and  Chippawa, 
just  above  the  Falls,  together  with  all 
barracks  and  store  houses  along  the 
river,  were  abandoned,  and  the  English 
evacuated  the  entire  frontier.  Fort 
Erie  was  promptly  occupied  by  the 
Americans.  Several  minor  attacks  were 
made  by  small  parties  of  English  at 
points  on  the  American  side  during 
1813,  one  at  Black  Rock,  where  the 
English  were  badly  repulsed,  being  the 
most  important. 

In  December,  1813,  the  British  as- 
sumed the  offensive  on  their  side  of  the 
river  and  soon  Gen.  McClure,  who  was 
in  command  of  the  American  forces 
holding  Fort  George,  determined  to 
abandon  it  and  cross  to  Fort  Niagara. 
He  blew  up  Fort  George  and  applied 
the  torch  to  the  beautiful  adjoining 
village  of  Newark.  This  was  the  oldest 
settlement  in  that  part  of  Canada,  was 
at  one  time  the  residence  of  her  lieu- 
tenant-governor, and  was  further  noted 
as  the  place  where  the  first  Parliament 
of  Upper  Canada  was  held  in  1792.  Its 
destruction  was  in  the  line  of  military 
tactics  which  leaves  nothing  to  shelter 
an  enemy  when  they  occupy  evacuated 
ground  ;  but  it  was  a  severe  winter,  the 
snow  was  deep,  and  the  sufferings  of 
those  whose  homes  were  thus  burnt, 
were  excessive. 

The  burning  of  Newark  raised  a  storm 
of  wrath  through  outCanada  and  England 
which  stimulated  the  English  forces  to 
make  great  efforts  for  victory  and  re- 
taliation. In  these  they  were  decidedly 
successful,  for  ten  days  later,  at  three 
o'clock  in  the  morning,  Col.  Murray, 
of  the  British  Army,  surprised  and  cap- 
tured Fort  Niagara.  Had  Capt.  Leon- 
ard, who  was  in  charge  of  the  Fort 
while  Gen.  McClure  was  at  his  head- 
quarters in  Buffalo,  been  vigilant,  the 
Fort  would  have,  probably,  been  suc- 
cessfully defended.  As  it  was,  it  fell 
an  easy  prey.  Lossing  says :  ' '  It  might 
have  been  an  almost  bloodless  victory 
had  not  the  unhallowed  spirit  of  re- 
venge demanded  victims. "  As  it  was, 


many  of  the  garrison,  including  inva- 
lids, were  bayonetted  after  all  resist- 
ance had  ceased.  The  British  General 
Riall,  with  a  force  of  regulars  and 
Indians  was  waiting  at  Queenston  for 
the  agreed  signal  of  success,  and  when 
the  cannon's  roar  announced  the  vic- 
tory, he  hurried  them  across  the  river 
to  the  village  of  Lewiston,  which  was 
sacked  and  destroyed  in  spite  of  such 
opposition  as  the  few  Americans  in  Fort 
Gray  on  Lewiston  Heights  could  make. 

After  a  temporary  check  on  Lewiston 
Heights  the  British  pushed  on  to  Man- 
chester (that  name  having  been  given 
to  it  in  anticipation  of  its  ultimately 
becoming  the  great  manufacturing  vil- 
lage of  America)  as  the  settlement  at 
the  Falls  was  then  called.  That  place, 
the  settlement  at  Schlosser,  two  miles 
above,  and  the  country  for  some  miles 
back  shared  the  fate  of  Lewiston  ;  the 
same  was  meted  out  to  Youngstown, 
near  Fort  Niagara.  The  destruction  of 
the  bridge  across  the  creek  at  Tona- 
wanda  saved  Buffalo  from  the  same  fate, 
but  only  for  a  few  days.  Gen.  Riall 
crossed  the  river  at  Queenston,  and  a 
few  days  later  appeared  opposite  Black 
Rock  which  adjoined  Buffalo.  This  he 
promptly  attacked  and  captured.  The 
hastily  gathered  and  unorganized 
American  forces  not  only  offered  little 
resistance,  but  hundreds  deserted. 
Buffalo  was  burnt,  only  four  houses 
being  left  standing,  and  many  persons 
were  killed. 

The  opening  of  the  campaign  of  1814 
found  an  American  army  at  Buffalo,  and 
on  July  3,  Fort  Erie  surrendered  to 
the  Americans.  On  July  5,  the  Ameri- 
cans met  and,  after  a  fierce  fight,  de- 
feated the  British  in  the  memorable 
battle  of  Chippawa,  on  the  Canadian 
side,  two  miles  above  the  Falls.  Soon 
afterwards,  the  British  retreated  to 
Queenston,  followed  by  the  Ameri- 
cans under  Gen.  Brown,  who  then  de- 
termined to  recapture  Fort  George  ; 
but  learning  that  the  expected  fleet 
could  not  co-operate  with  him,  he 
changed  his  plans  and  returned  to 
Chippawa.  Gen.  Scott,  reconnoitering 
from  this  place  in  the  late  afternoon  of 
July  25,  found  Gen.  Riall  with  his  re- 


378 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


inforced  army  drawn  up  in  line  of  battle 
at  Lundy's  Lane.  Gen.  Scott,  with  a 
nominal  force,  but  with  the  hope  of 
gaining  time  for  the  advent  of  Gen. 
Brown's  army,  immediately  gave  battle. 
Of  the  details  of  that  battle,  fought 
mainly  by  the  glorious  light  of  a  sum- 
mer moon,  and  continued  until  after 
midnight,  with  the  spray  of  Niagara 
drifting  over  the  heads  of  the  opposing 
armies  and  the  thunder  of  the  Falls 
mingling  with  the  roar  of  the  cannon,  it 
is  not  possible  to  recount  much.  The 
central  point  on  the  hill  was  held  by  a 
British  battery,  and  it  was  in  response 
to  an  order  to  capture  it  that  Col. 
Miller  made  his  famous  reply,  "  I'll  try, 
Sir."  He  did  try,  and  successfully, 
and  the  battery,  once  captured,  was 
held  by  the  Americans  against  oft- 
repeated  and  brave  attacks  by  the 
British. 

When  at  last  the  British  army  re- 
treated, the  Americans  fell  back  to 
their  camp  at  Chippawa,  and  before 
they  returned  the  next  morning,  the 
British  had  once  more,  owing  to  the 
American  General  Ripley's  negligence, 
occupied  the  field  and  dragged  away 
the  cannon  which  had  been  captured 
from  them.  The  battle  of  Niagara 
Falls,  Lundy's  Lane,  or  Bridgewater  as 
it  is  variously  called  was  claimed  as  a 
^victory  by  the  British,  and  is  still  annu- 
ally celebrated,  on  the  battlefield,  as 
such.  The  Americans,  too,  regarded  it 
as  a  substantial  victory,  and  the  United 
States  Congress  voted  to  Generals 
Scott,  Brown,  Porter,  Gaines  and  Rip- 
ley  gold  medals  for  their  services  in  this 
and  other  battles  of  the  war. 

The  American  army  now  returned  to 
Fort  Erie  which  they  strongly  fortified, 
and  where  they  were  besieged  on 
August  3,  by  the  British.  For  ten  days 
both  armies  were  busy  preparing  for 
the  inevitable  and  decisive  contest.  Just 
after  midnight  on  August  14,  the  British 
attacked  the  fort,  but  were  finally  re- 
pulsed. From  this  time  to  September 
17,  there  was  frequent  cannonading,  but 
on  that  date  a  sortie  from  the  fort  was 
made  by  the  Americans,  and  was  so 
boldly  planned  and  so  faithfully  exe- 
cuted, that  the  British  were  completely 


routed,  and  Buffalo  and  Western  New 
York  saved  from  invasion.  Lord  Napier 
refers  to  this  sortie  as  the  only  instance 
in  modern  warfare,  where  a  besieging 
army  was  totally  routed  by  such  a 
movement.  A  few  more  desultory  en- 
gagements occurred  along  the  Canadian 
bank  of  the  river,  Gen.  Izard  having 
assumed  command  of  the  American 
army  ;  but  the  season  was  too  far  ad- 
vanced for  any  further  offensive  opera- 
tions on  this  peninsula,  and  Canada  was 
abandoned.  Fort  Erie  was  mined,  and 
on  November  5,  1814,  was  laid  in  ruins. 
It  still  remains  so, — a  picturesque  spot. 
Some  space  has  been  devoted  to  this 
war,  although  not  a  fraction  of  what  its 
importance  demands.  During  its  con- 
tinuance almost  every  foot  of  land  along 
both  banks  of  the  Niagara  river  was  the 
scene  of  strife,  of  victory  and  defeat,  of 
triumphs  of  armies  and  of  bravery  and 
heroism  of  individuals. 

The  treaty  of  Ghent  restored  peace 
to  both  countries,  to  the  delight  of  all, 
especially  of  the  inhabitants  along  the 
frontier.  The  commissioners  appointed 
under  that  treaty  to  settle  the  question 
of  the  boundary  between  the  United 
States  and  Canada  agreed  subsequently 
that  that  line,  "  between  Lake  Erie  and 
Lake  Ontario  should  run  through  the 
centre  of  the  deepest  channel  of  the 
Niagara  river,  and  through  the  point  of 
the  Horse  Shoe  Fall."  Later  years 
proved  this  to  be  a  variable  line  as  far 
as  the  point  of  the  Fall  is  concerned, 
though  this  fact  will  never  impair  the 
validity  of  the  boundary  line.  By  the 
above  decision  Grand  Island  and  Goat 
Island  became  American  soil,  and  Navy 
Island  fell  under  British  rule.  The 
frontier,  especially  on  the  American 
side,  recovered  rapidly  from  the  effects 
of  the  war,  for  it  was  a  section  sought 
by  settlers,  and  many  who  reached  the 
Niagara  river  on  a  projected  journey  to 
lands  farther  west,  became  residents  of 
the  locality. 

Prior  to  1825,  all  heavy  goods  were 
sent  westwards  by  Lake  Ontario  vessels 
to  Lewiston  ;  thence,  were  carted  over 
the  well-known  "Portage  road"  to 
Schlosser,  and  there  again  reloaded  into 
vessels  which  went  up  the  Niagara 


NIAGARA   IN  HISTORY. 


379 


river,  past  Black  Rock  and  Buffalo  at 
the  source  of  the  river,  and  then  out 
into  Lake  Erie.  Freights  from  the  west 
followed  the  opposite  course,  over  the 
same  route ;  and  this  carrying  trade 
along  the  frontier,  controlled  almost  en- 
tirely by  one  firm,  was  a  source  of  per- 
sonal wealth  to  its  members,  a  means 
of  livelihood  to  many  a  family,  and  a 
prominent  factor  in  the  speedy  develop- 
ment of  the  region.  On  October  26, 1825, 
a  cannon  in  the  village  of  Buffalo,  at  the 
source  of  the  Niagara  river  boomed 
forth  its  greeting,  followed,  a  few  sec- 
onds later,  by  another  cannon,  near 
Black  Rock  ;  and  thus  thundered  can- 
non after  cannon,  down  the  Niagara 
river,  toTonawanda;  thence,  easterly  to 
Albany,  and  south,  along  the  Hudson 
river,  to  New  York  city,  announcing 
the  glad  message  that,  at  the  source  of 
the  Niagara  river,  the  waters  of  Lake 
Erie  had  just  been  let  into  that  barely 
completed  water-way,  the  Erie  Canal. 
The  completion  of  the  canal  built  up 
Buffalo,  but  at  the  same  time,  ch'ecked 
the  rapid  growth  of  the  northern  portion 
of  the  region,  by  causing  a  total  sus- 
pension of  traffic  over  the  old  portage. 
Two  events,  entirely  dissimilar  and 
in  no  way  connected  with  warlike  opera- 
tions, occurred  in  this  region  in  the  year 
1826,  and  each  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  whole  world.  The  first  was  the 
proposal  of  Major  Mordecai  M.  Noah 
to  create  a  second  City  of  Jerusalem 
within  clear  view  of  the  Falls  of  Niagara, 
by  buying  Grand  Island,  comprising 
some  18,000  acres,  and  there  building 
up  for  the  Hebrew  race  an  ideal  com- 
munity of  wealth  and  industry.  He 
even  went  so  far,  in  his  assumed  capa- 
city of  the  Great  High  Priest  of  the 
project,  as  to  lay  the  corner  stone  of 
the  future  city  of  Ararat.  This  he  did, 
not  even  within  the  boundaries  of  his 
proposed  city,  but  some  miles  away,  on 
the  altar  of  a  Christian  church  in  Buffalo, 
to  which  church,  clad  in  sacerdotal 
robes,  attended  in  procession  by  mili- 
tary and  civic  authorities,  local  societies, 
and  a  great  concourse  of  people  he  was 
impressively  escorted.  The  Patriarch 
of  Jerusalem,  however,  refused  his 
sanction  to  the  project,  money  did  not 


pour  in  to  its  support,  and  it  was  ulti- 
mately abandoned.  The  cornet  stone 
was,  however,  built  into  a  small  brick 
monument  at  White  Haven,  a  point  on 
Grand  Island  opposite  Tonawanda,  and 
is  now  ?n  the  rooms  of  the  Buffalo 
Historical  Society. 

The  other  event  was  the  reputed 
murder  of  William  Morgan,  of  Batavia, 
who  had  threatened  to  disclose  the 
secrets  of  the  masonic  fraternity  in 
print.  He  was  quietly  seized  and  taken 
away  from  his  home,  and  was  traced, 
in  the  hands  of  his  abductors,  through 
Lewiston,  to  Fort  Niagara.  There  he 
was  confined  in  what  is  still  called 
"  Morgan's  Dungeon,"  a  windowless 
cell  that  was  probably  used  as  a  powder 
magazine.  All  trace  of  him  was  lost 
after  he  entered  the  fort,  and  tradition 
says  he  was  taken  from  his  dungeon 
by  night,  placed  in  a  boat,  to  be  sent, 
as  he  was  told,  to  Canada,  rowed  out 
on  Lake  Ontario,  and  forced  into  a 
watery  grave.  Several  persons  were 
arrested  and  tried  for  his  murder,  but 
no  proof  of  their  being  directly  con- 
cerned in  the  matter,  nor,  in  fact,  any 
direct  proof  of  Morgan's  death  being 
introduced,  they  were  discharged. 
Some  persons,  however,  were  sentenced 
to  imprisonment  for  conspiracy  in  con- 
nection with  the  matter.  Thus  the 
episode  upon  which  the  famous,  power- 
ful and  widespread  anti-masonic  agita- 
tion was  based,  occurred  in,  and  became 
an  integral  part  of  Niagara's  history. 

In  the  same  year,  the  first  survey  and 
report  were  made  at  Lewiston  on  a  pro- 
ject, which,  so  far  as  any  commence- 
ment of  it  is  concerned,  is  now  as  re- 
mote as  it  was  then.  Yet,  it  is  a  pro- 
ject which  has  a  national  importance,  on 
which,  in  at  least  four  surveys,  the 
United  States  Government  has  em- 
ployed some  of  its  greatest  engineers, 
and  one  which  has,  on  numerous  occa- 
sions, been  discussed  and  advocated  by 
commercial  bodies,  and  in  the  halls  of 
the  United  States  Congress  ;  namely, 
a  ship  canal,  of  a  capacity  large  enough 
to  float  the  largest  war  vessels  around 
the  Falls  of  Niagara.  From  a  point 
from  two  to  four  miles  above  the  Falls, 
to  the  deep  and  quiet  waters  near 


CASSIER'S    MAGAZINE. 


Levviston,  has  been  the  route  most 
generally  approved  for  such  a  canal,  of 
which  the  cost  would  be  enormous.  The 
resulting  benefits,  however,  especially 
as  the  population  and  wealth  of  the 
United  States  increase,  might  be  ines- 
timable, especially  in  the  event  of  a  war 
with  England  and  Canada. 

The  Niagara  region  again  became  the 
theatre  of  war  in  1837,  when  the 
Patriots  undertook  to  upset  the  Govern- 
ment of  Canada.  While  the  first  revolt 
occurred  at  York,  now  Toronto,  the 
entire  Canadian  bank  of  the  Niagara 
river  was  kept  in  a  ferment  for  several 
months.  Navy  Island  was  at  one  time 
the  principal  rendezvous  of  the  Patriots, 
and  from  there,  on  December  17,  1837, 
William  Lyon  Mackenzie,  the  leader, 
signing  himself  "Chairman  pro  tern  of 
the  provincial  (a  printer's  error,  which 
should  read  provisional)  government  of 
the  State  of  Upper  Canada,"  issued  his 
famous  proclamation  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Province. 

Without  reference  to  the  various  in- 
trigues carried  on  all  along  the  frontier 
by  the  Patriots  with  their  American 
sympathizers,  of  whom  there  were, 
doubtless,  a  goodly  number,  the  writer 
would  mention  only  the  crucial  event  of 
the  war,  the  Caroline  episode.  It  was 
openly  charged  by  the  Canadians  that 
substantial  aid  was  being  rendered  from 
the  American  side  to  the  Patriots,  both 
by  private  individuals  in  various  ways, 
and  especially  by  reason  of  the  non-in- 
terference of  the  national  and  New 
York  State  authorities  when  informed, 
on  credible  testimony,  that  arms  and 
amunition  were  being  shipped  and  other 
aid  was  being  furnished  from  American 
soil  to  the  Canadian  rebels.  This  feel- 
ing was  so  bitter  on  the  part  of  the 
English  that  it  is  not  surprising  that 
they  seized  the  first  opportunity  for 
retaliation. 

A  small  steamer,  the  Caroline,  had 
been  chartered  by  some  people  in 
Buffalo  to  run  between  that  city,  Navy 
Island  where  the  insurgents  were  en- 
camped, and  Schlosser,  on  the  Ameri- 
can side,  where  there  was  a  landing 
place  for  boats  and  a  hotel.  They 
maintained  that  it  was  a  private  money- 


making  venture,  transporting  the  sight- 
seers to  the  Patriot's  camp  ;  but  from 
the  Canadian's  view  the  real  object  was 
to  convey  provisions  and  arms  to  their 
enemies.  On  the  night  of  December 
29,  1837,  the  Caroline  lay  moored  at 
Schlosser  dock.  The  excitement  of  the 
rebellion  had  drawn  many  people  to 
this  locality,  the  little  hotel  was  filled 
and  some  persons  had  sought  a  night's 
lodging  on  the  boat. 

At  midnight,  six  boats,  filled  with 
British  soldiers,  sent  from  Chippawa  by 
Sir  Allan  McNab,  silently  approached 
the  Caroline.  The  soldiers  promptly 
boarded  her,  drove  off  all  on  board, 
both  crew  and  lodgers,  cut  her  adrift, 
set  her  on  fire,  and  again  taking  to 
their  boats,  towed  her  out  to  the  middle 
of  the  river  and  cast  her  loose.  And  a 
glorious  sight,  viewed  merely  from  a 
scenic  standpoint,  it  was.  The  clear 
dark  sky  above  and  the  cold  dark  body 
of  water  beneath.  Ablaze  all  along  her 
decks,  her  shape  clearly  outlined  by 
the  flames,  she  drifted  grandly  and 
swiftly  towards  the  Falls.  Reaching 
the  rapids,  the  waves  extinguished  most 
of  the  flames  ;  but,  still  on  fire,  racked 
and  broken,  she  pitched  and  tossed 
forward  to  and  over  the  Horse  Shoe 
Fall,  into  the  gulf  below.  The  whole 
affair,  the  incentive  therefor,  the 
methods  employed,  and  the  manner  of 
the  attack  caused  intense  excitement, 
and  once  again  the  Niagara  frontier  was 
threatened  with  war,  and  the  militia 
along  the  border  were  actually  called 
into  the  field. 

Long  diplomatic  correspondence  fol- 
lowed, the  British  Government  assum- 
ing full  responsibility  for  the  claimed 
breaches  of  international  law  and  the 
acts  of  her  officers.  During  the  melee 
at  the  dock,  one  man,  Amos  Durfee, 
was  killed.  A  British  subject,  Alex- 
ander McLeod,  claimed  to  have  been 
one  of  the  attacking  force,  was  soon 
after  arrested  on  American  foil  and  was 
tried  for  the  murder  in  New  York  State, 
but  was  finally  acquitted.  War  was 
wisely  averted,  but  another  fateful  chap- 
ter had  been  added  to  Niagara's  history. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Fenian 
outbreak  on  the  Canadian  side  of  the 


NIAGARA    IN  HISTORY. 


river  in  1866,  the  region  has  been  free 
from  war's  alarms  since  the  days  of  the 
Patriots.  The  Fenian  outbreak  was 
one  of  the  results  of  the  plan  of  the 
revolutionary  Irishmen  to  oppose  the 
English  Government,  and  to  compel 
that  government  to  restore  Ireland's 
rights.  The  Fenian  hostility  to  Canada 
was  solely  because  of  the  fact  that  the 
latter  was  an  English  dependency.  The 
special  time  was  selected,  because  of  the 
actual  service  that  many  loyal  Irishmen 


In  1885,  the  State  of  New  York,  after 
an  agitation  by  prominent  men  for  sev- 
eral years,  purchased  the  land  on  the 
American  side,  including  Goat  Island 
and  all  the  smaller  islands  adjacent  to 
the  Falls,  and  above  and  below  them, 
for  a  State  Reservation.  In  1887,  the 
Province  of  Ontario,  Canada,  took  a 
similar  action.  The  Canadian  Govern- 
ment, many  years  ago,  with  rare  fore- 
sight had  reserved  a  strip  of  land,  sixty- 
six  feet  wide,  along  the  water's  edge 


THE  STEAMER  CAROLINE  BURNT  AND  FORCED  OVER  THE  FALLS  ON  DECEMBER  29,  1837. 

(From  an  Old  Engraving.) 


had  just  then  seen  in  the  United  States 
army  during  the  Rebellion.  Of  actual 
hostilities  on  this  frontier  there  was  but 
one  occurrence  during  the  brief  agita- 
tion, fought  on  the  Canadian  side 
opposite  Buffalo,  from  which  city  the 
Fenians  invaded  Canada.  It  was 
known  as  the  battle  of  Ridgeway,  the 
main  contest  having  been  at  that  point, 
with  a  subordinate  engagement  at  a 
hamlet  called  Waterloo,  close  to  the 
water' s  edge.  The  Fenians  were  tempo- 
rarily successful,  but  were  ultimately 
entirely  defeated  and  their  invading 
force  quickly  dispersed. 


above  the  Falls,  and  along  the  edge  of 
the  high  bank  below  them,  from  Lake 
Erie  to  Lake  Ontario,  as  a  military 
reserve.  This  is  now  under  the  control 
of  the  Canadian  Park  Commissioners, 
and,  together  with  the  additional  lands 
acquired  near  the  Falls,  and  the  land 
around  Brock's  Monument,  forms  an 
ideal  government  reservation. 

The  honour  of  first  suggesting  the 
preservation  of  the  scenery  about  the 
Falls  has  been  claimed  for  many  per- 
sons. Others,  later  on,  suggested  it 
officially  ;  others  still,  advocated  it 
more  publicly  and  more  persistently, 


382 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


A   RECENT   VIEW  OF   NIAGARA   FALLS. 


NIAGARA   IN  HISTORY. 


383 


but  the  first  real  suggestion,  though 
made  without  any  reference  to  details, 
came  from  two  Scotchmen,  Andrew 
Reed  and  James  Matheson,  who,  in 
1835,  in  a  work  describing  their  visit  as 
a  deputation  to  the  American  churches, 
first  broached  the  idea  that  ''Niagara 
does  not  belong  to  Canada  or  America. 
Such  spots  should  be  deemed  the  prop- 
erty of  civilized  mankind,  and  nothing 
should  be  allowed  to  weaken  their  effi- 
cacy on  the  tastes,  the  morals,  and  the 
enjoyment  of  men." 

Such,  in  the  ordinary  acceptation  of 
the  word  and  in  the  briefest  form,  is  an 
outline  of  the  history  of  the  Niagara 
region.  Many  points  and  facts  of  in- 
terest have  necessarily  been  left  un- 
touched, but  brief  reference  should  be 
made  to  the  old  tramway,  built  from 
the  water's  edge,  at  the  very  head  of 
navigation  on  the  lower  river,  up  the 
almost  perpendicular  bank,  300  feet 
high,  close  to  Hennepin'  s  ' '  three  moun- 
tains." It  was  used  in  very  early  days, 
probably  before  the  American  Revolu- 
tion, for  raising  and  lowering  heavy 
goods  between  the  vessels  and  the  port- 
age wagons,  and  consisted  of  a  flat  car, 
on  broad  runners,  moving  on  wooden 
rails.  It  was  raised  and  lowered  by  a 
windlass,  and  this  latter  was  operated 
by  Indian  labour  then  accessible  only 
at  the  Indians'  own  price.  Braves  who 
ordinarily  would  scorn  to  work  at  any 
manual  labour,  gladly  toiled  all  day  for 
a  plug  of  tobacco  and  a  pint  of  whiskey. 
The  tramway  was  notable  as  being  the 
first  known  adaptation  of  the  crude 
principle  of  a  railroad  in  the  United 
States. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  mention  also, 
the  reservation  of  the  Tuscarora  Indians, 
east  of  Lewiston,  where  the  half-breed 
remnants  of  the  last-embraced  tribe  of 
the  Six  Nations  now  reside,  cultivating 
their  fields,  and  educating  their  children 
under  the  care  of  the  State.  A  tribute 
also  is  due  to  Canadian  foresight  in  the 
building  of  the  Welland  Canal  which 
connects  Canada's  frontage  on  the 
Great  Lakes  with  her  system  of  St. 
Lawrence  canals  tp  the  seaboard. 
Mention,  finally,  should  be  made  of  the 
modern  suggestion  of  a  ship  railway 


around  the  Falls,  touching,  at  its  termi- 
nals, about  the  same  points  on  the 
upper  and  lower  river  as  those  held  in 
view  in  the  previously-suggested  ship 
canal,  and  proposing,  in  the  ascent  and 
descent  of  the  Lewiston  mountain 
(which  was  the  old  shore  of  Lake 
Ontario  before  it  receded  to  its  present 
level),  as  remarkable  a  triumph  of  engi- 
neering skill  as  was  shown  in  the 
enormous  projected  locks  and  one  hun- 
dred-acre basin  of  the  ship  canal. 

Next,  glance  back  to  the  many  Indian 
villages  which,  long  years  ago,  dotted 
the  region,  the  four  or  more  of  the 
Neuter  nation,  or  Kahkwas,  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  river,  and  a  much 
larger  number  on  the  western  side  ; 
later  on,  to  the  gradual  occupation  of 
these  lands  by  the  Senecas,  almost  three 
generations  after  their  ancestors  had 
annihilated  the  Neuters  ;  then,  to  the 
Seneca  village,  built  on  the  site  of  the 
present  city  of  Buffalo,  and  then  to  the 
one  built  years  ago  on  the  site  of  the 
village  still  called  Tonawanda,  where, 
of  late  years,  at  the  "  long  house,"  was 
annually  held  the  council  of  the 
remnants  of  the  Six  Nations  ;  and  then 
at  the  docks  in  that  village  where  once 
floated  the  Indian's  canoe,  and  where 
now  is  seen  the  maze  of  vessels  whose 
cargoes  have,  in  the  last  two  decades, 
built  up  the  commercial  trade  of  this, 
the  second  largest  lumber  market  in 
America. 

Turn,  next,  to  the  geological  page 
and  recall  the  ever  fresh  and  still  much- 
discussed  question  as  to  the  ages  that 
it  has  taken  the  Falls  to  cut  their  way 
back  from  Lewiston  to  their  present 
location ;  consider,  too,  the  question 
regarding  the  time  when  a  great  inland 
sea  covered  the  whole  region,  of  which 
proof  is,  even  to-day,  found  in  the 
shells  which  underlie  the  soil  on  Goat 
Island  and  the  adjacent  country.  Con- 
sider, further,  the  query  as  to  when 
and  why  the  great  flood  of  waters 
abandoned  its  old  channel  which  ran 
westward  from  the  whirlpool  to  the 
edge  of  the  bluff  at  St.  Davids,  far  to 
the  west  of  the  present  outlet  of  the 
river  into  Lake  Ontario,  and  how  that 
old  channel,  still  easily  traceable,  was 


CASSIER'S  MAGAZINE. 


filled  up  to  nearly  the  level  of  the  sur- 
rounding country. 

Look  also  at  the  view,  given  in  very 
recent  years  by  nature,  of  how  her  forces 
worked  to  excavate  the  Niagara  gorge 
in  the  mass  of  old  Table  Rock,  left  hang- 
ing over  the  abyss  for  years  and  falling 
by  its  own  weight  in  1853.  Remember 
the  thrilling  trip  of  the  little  steamer 
"Maid  of  the  Mist,"  which,  from  the 
quiet  waters  of  her  usual,  circumscribed 
limit  below  the  Falls,  was,  in  1861, 
taken  through  the  mad  rapids  safely 
into  the  whirlpool  and,  thence,  through 
the  lower  rapids  into  Lake  Ontario, — 
the  only  vessel  that,  during  the  100 
years  of  Queenston's  existence  as  a  port 
of  entry,  ever  entered  it  from  up-stream; 
and  which  vessel  was  compelled  by  the 
canny  officer  then  in  charge  of  the  port, 
to  take  out  entrance  and  clearance 
papers,  although,  according  to  these, 
she  carried  * '  no  passengers  and  no 
freight. ' '  The  trip  of  that  little  steamer 
proved,  so  far  as  the  river  below  the 
Falls  was  concerned,  what  the  courts 
have  since  decided,  that  the  Niagara 
river  throughout  its  entire  length  is  a 
navigable  stream. 

Finally,  think  of  Niagara  as  the 
Mecca  of  all  travelers  to  the  New  World, 
think  of 

"  What  troops  of  tourists  have  encamped  upon 

the  river's  brink. 

What  poets  have  shed  from  countless  quills, 
Niagaras  of  ink." 

Turn  also  to  the  long  list  of  noted 
persons  who  have  paid  their  devotions 
and  tributes  at  Niagara' s  shrine.  Poten- 
tates and  princes  have  come,  gazed  on 
the  Falls,  and  gone  away,  their  visit  to 
Niagara,  perhaps  like  their  lives,  color- 
less and  without  a  trace.  Then,  with 
greater  satisfaction,  turn  to  the  large 
number  of  famous  men  and  women,  un- 
crowned, but  still,  by  reason  of  their 
abilities,  rulers  of  the  people,  who  by 
their  words,  their  pens,  or  their  pencils, 
have  given  their  impressions  of  the 
cataract  to  the  world,  and  have,  at  least, 
earned  for  themselves  thereby  the  right 
to  be  allowed  a  niche  in  Niagara's 
temple  of  fame.  And  numerous  are  the 
names  of  men  and  women  who,  in  these 
and  other  ways,  have  connected  their 
names  with  Niagara,  embracing  the 


leaders   in    every    branch    of    science, 
knowledge  and  art. 

There  is  yet  another  set  of  men  whose 
greatest  notoriety  has  been  acquired  at 
Niagara.  Among  these  are  Francis 
Abbott,  "the  hermit  of  Niagara," 
whose  solitary  life,  close  to  the  Falls 
themselves,  and  his  death  by  drowning, 
have  stood  as  a  perpetual  proof  of  the 
influence  of  the  great  cataract  on  human 
nature ;  Sam  Patch,  whose  daring  led 
him  to  make  two  jumps  from  a  scaffold, 
100  feet  high,  into  the  deep  waters  at 
the  base  of  the  Goat  Island  cliff,  safely 
in  both  cases,  although,  not  long  after- 
wards, a  similar  attempt  at  theGenesee 
Falls  proved  to  be  his  last ;  Blondin, 
whose  marvelous  nerve  led  him  repeat- 
edly, and  under  various  conditions,  to 
cross  the  gorge  on  a  tight- rope  ;  Joel 
Robinson,  whose  life  was  often  risked 
thereabouts  to  save  that  of  others  ; 
and  Matthew  Webb,  whose  prowess  as 
a  swimmer  led  him  to  try,  unaided  by 
artificial  appliances,  to  swim  through 
the  whirlpool  rapids,  in  which  attempt 
he  lost  his  life. 

Of  early  Indian  names  on  the  frontier, 
two  are  specially  prominent, — Red 
Jacket,  a  Seneca,  the  greatest  of  all 
Indian  orators,  who  spent  most  of  his 
long  life  near  Buffalo,  and  died  there, 
and  who  fought,  with  the  rest  of  his 
tribal  warriors,  in  the  American  army 
in  the  war  of  1812  ;  and  John  Brant,  son 
of  the  famous  Joseph  Brant,  a  Mohawk, 
educated  mainly  at  Niagara  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  in  Canada,  whose 
first  leadership  in  war  was  as  an  ally 
of  the  British  at  the  battle  of  Queenston. 

Forever  and  inseparately  connected 
with  the  Niagara  region  will  be  the 
names  of  all  of  the  persons  here  referred 
to,  some  mentioned  merely  as  members 
of  a  class,  others  individually.  Among 
the  first  on  this  roll  of  honour,  as  they 
were  among  the  first  to  view,  depict, 
and  describe  the  Falls,  are  the  names 
of  La  Salle  andHennepin, — the  intrepid 
explorer,  and  the  noble,  though  much 
villified,  priest,  for  since  1678  there  has 
been  no  portion  of  the  globe  to  which 
the  attention  of  mankind  has  been  more, 
and  in  more  ways,  attracted  than  to 
this  Niagara  region. 


THE 

UNIVERSITY 


I 


1  Is  DUE  ow 
5ocBP°*  fot  J^"**b  BEL?WI'AST  DATE 


I  U      I 


